INTRODUCTIONS
Studies have indicated that South Humber Bank is the largest area which is underdeveloped despite having estuary of deep-water estuary in the United Kingdoms. It has been eestimated that at least 1000 hectare of land is presently available for carrying out activities of development. Also Grimsby and Immingham ports which are located on the SHB are the UK’s largest ports. Apparently they are known to handle over 66 millions of tonnes of freight as per the statistical data of 2007 (Chow, Mishra and Tutumluer 2014). This was was found to be equivalent to 10% of the total cargo of the UK market. It is important to note that SHB has been serving as the largest refinery cluster of the UK home. Considering the developable land avaialability as well as infrustracture constraints which are on the increase particularly at the main southern ports in cluding (Felixstowe, Southampton etc, there is likelihood that meaningful growth will take place on the SHB with the Immingham and Grimsby ports forecast growing rapidly in the next 40 or so years to assist in meeting the demands in the UK.
- Pavement design (50%)
Part a
DESIGN TRAFFIC IN MSA
Ctb layer construction to minimioze the thickness of dbm layer
Non-Conventional Flexible Pavement Design
This practice of design has been conducted with the help of Mechanistic Empirical Principles with non-conventional material, i.e., by implementing the use of cemented sub-base. Below are the brief discussions of the adopted procedures and the assumptions for the design approach of Mechanistic Empirical.
Materials, Conventions and Inputs
- Layers of BT: in most of the cases, modified bitumen or VG-40 of same stiffness usually around 3000 Mpa is preferred for the bituminous layers (DBM and BC).
- WMM: a layer of this material is mixed with an emulsion of bitumen of around 1-2% to develop a greater stability after completion of construction at the period of compaction. It has been commonly observed that in case cemented base is applied, the cemented layer at first goes through a process called fatigue failure and proliferation of fatigue cracking commence on the layers of the bitumen. Therefore, this layer of WMM will be preferred to be within the cemented base and a layer of BT. At that position, it performs as a cushion and adjourns the crack reflection proliferation into the layer of BT.
Cement Treated GSB (CTB)
Mixing of Granular Sub-base materials with cement is done at around 2 -4%. With Cement Treated Bases, high orders of initial stiffness ranging within 4500 Mpa to 5500 Mpa is achieved, conversely, on the occurrence of fatigue cracking, there is a substantial drop in the level of stiffness to lower percentages of around 10% compared to the initial stiffness, and therefore the mostly preferred stiffness for pavement design is 500 Mpa.
Untreated GSB
This layer performs the function of drainage and is spread over the entire width of the formation. The relation provided within UKRC 37-2001 is preferred for estimating the elastic modulus.
Subgrade
Estimation of the subgrade elastic modulus is done according to the UKRC 37-2001.
Criteria failure
The cracking fatigue on the BT bottom and subgrade top rutting are taken as one of the failure governing the design.
Pavement life fatigue
Considering annexure 1 of UKRC 37-2001, fatigue MSA life terms is calculated using the formula below;
In which
E is BT layer elastic modulus.
€r is the BT layer tensile strain on the bottom.
Nf is the cumulative number of standard axles producing about 20% of surface area cracked
Pavement rutting life.
According to Annexure 1 of UKRC 37-2001, MSA rutting life terms is calculated using the following formula
In which
E is the BT layer elastic modulus
€z is the vertical subgrade strain
Ni is the value of cumulative standard axles producing 20mm rutting.
Combination of the flexible pavement with cemented sub-base
Taking the above into consideration, composition of the crust arrived through analysis of mechanistic as summarized in the table below
Table 1: A table showing crust composition of the flexible pavement and cemented sub-base over one decade and half.
Safety cross -check
MSA design is about 65 as far as the table above is considered, while its cross checked for 70 MSA as in the table below as well as for the main crust carriageway is provided in the second table below.
Table 2: A table showing an assumed traffic that is MSA
Table 3: A table of crust tor the major carriageway
Part b
Pavement Foundation including capping layer
Pavement Design
In this particular stud, the modelling of Flexible Pavement has been done as a three-layered structure. The CBR value considered in the design was 6 as for the case of the sub-grade soils. Other factors o consideration damage factor as well as number of the commercial vehicles. The life of the project was considered to be 40 years
Figure 1a: DBM Illustrations
Surveys of traffic
The traffic volume which has been classified was performed at 173km along the road the road of the project. The flexible pavement design for the case of the of the soft subgrade and baseline are as summarized in the figure shown below. The conditions of the soft-subgrade allows for the cross section of pavement which is basically thicker. In both the cases of the design of 1993 AASHTO and NCHRP 1-37A the thickness of AC which is required will definitely increase from 5.3 – 7.9 inches. This is prior to the rounding as well as basing the assumption of constant thickness of GAP. It is important to note that the thickness of GAP constantly remains at 12.7 inches for the rest of the designs (Yang et al.2014).
Figure 1b: Subgrade index
The increase in the thickness of the asphalt is used economically with a thinner layer of aggregate base for the same structural capacity in the case of procedure involving 1993 AASHTO. The design presented in this particular study has however not included the same adjustment
s.
Figure 1c: Layers presentations
Capping Layer Thickness
There was creation of a diagram to assist in the determination of the thickness of the capping layer marked as h1 which was having corresponding capping modulus E1. The subgrade values were found at E2. The equivalent modulus on the surface of the layer of capping was obtained by the use of the equation shown below.
In the process of the thickness dete5mination, a=150mm. The equivalent Ev which was required was Ev=80Mpa. The ratio for starting thus becomes E1/E2=60. The layer thickness of capping therefore becomes h=170mm.
Part C
Asphalt surfacing for conventional commercial vehicles
Traffic contemplations – evaluation of ESALs were done by the help of a prior design of the project for traffic information of a semi-rigid pavement, complemented with traffic data of similar expressways in existence. As per the stipulations for Asphalt Pavement Highways Design, the design traffic volume and the standard Axle Load, BZZ-100 typical axle (an axle fixed on dual tires) with 0.7 Mpa tire pressure, standard load of 100kN, a single diameter wheel of 213 mm contact circular area, and a separation distant of 320 mm between the tires of diameter 1.5. An extendible standard axle load is used to cater for extra overloading to approximately 150kN. Traffic load estimation is an essential design input of the pavement, and due to this, most of the currently drafted commercial vehicle traffic as well as axle load information are implemented in the design process of pavement. Following are some of the traffic compositions and volumes presented by the local highway authority (Selvi 2015).
Overall traffic volume per month: volume in of 220,000 per month estimated as 7,000 per day and volume out of 210,000 per month estimated as 6,900 per day as illustrated below
Figure 2 a: Graphical illustrations of the daily commercial flow
Composition of the traffic: 32% trucks and from that a total of 30% is overloaded. A semi-rigid primary design report on the project provided the data which was used in estimating the Equivalent Axle Loads (EALs) after every five years from the period of 15 years to the period of 50 years, this was also supplemented by EALs daily as per the strain of tensile 3812 EALs in a day and a deflection of 4602 EALs per day, and estimates on the traffic growth. It was presumed that after the 25th year of calculation, no total growth would be observed due to newly installed lanes and the newly implemented regulations, for example control on overloading or reduced overloading and implementation of modern trucks(Lee and Madanat 2014).
According to the analysis conducted based on this, some circumstances were implemented to uphold a sensible capacity for the growth of traffic in the future. The construction of future lane almost 4-6 in the 15th year; B at the period of 20th year; and C at the period of 30th year was implemented. A conversion factor of 4.6 was considered in the shift of EALs from 100kN to 80kN. Calculation of the factor was based on the assumption of a loaded blend and unlocked trucks and the 30% of the overloaded vehicles and classically factors of the trucks.
Properties of the materials: the designing method which was implemented for the pavement structure was referred to as the AASHTO (# design.
Tables 5: Guide list for commercial vehicles
Part d
Accounting for the autonomous truck within MEPDG
The software of MEPDG exclude the functionality toward directly account of a uniform loadings distribution. The methodology like this was devised to account equivalently for this particular featured in variable present within the MEPDG. Therefore, the method consists of changing the actual values of traffic input in consideration to the factor accounting for the on- average vehicle equivalency located based on the uniform distribution relative to one located to the normal distribution (Mohd Hasan, Hiller and You 2016).
Taking the data given as per the table;
Table 6: Traffic data summary
The equivalency factor that is EF application is common within pavement design as well as in analysis so as to ensure that performance calculation is simplified. Within the cases above, EF essential concept is done by calculating repetitions ratio to failure that is Nf of some configuration loadings that is (tire pressure, axle load, type of axle and wander) as per the equation given below
Distribution probability of(a) nonautonomous truck distributed normally, (b)autonomous trucks zero wander, while (c) is the autonomous truck distributed uniformly. The equation below gives a mathematical basis on how the EF is being used in estimating the traffic volume adjusted (AADTTADJUSTED DESIGN). This is essentially supposes as compared to an equivalency factors present to compare the number of vehicle passes having a uniform or zero wander distribution travel (an autonomous truck) toward the vehicles whose wander comply to the normal distribution.
The following equivalency holds and based of the equations above, the total traffic volume adjustment done using EF may accomplished technically by adjusting the input of AADTT, DD or LD. In the given analysis, AADTT has been modified due to adjustment of this input proved to be one of the most straightforward. In some cases, hen 100 percent autonomous truck, then equation 15 may be applied in estimating the total AADTT because all trucks are given the assumption to have a very uniform travel distribution. In the third scenario AADTTINPUT on both non autonomous and autonomous truck lane was separately adjusted for every kind of truck depending on the two vehicle percentage as shown in the two equation below.
In which
( Kim et al.2014) For the second scenario cases only based on single AADTTADJUSTED INPUT value was being input TO THE me design software since both the autonomous and non-autonomous trucks were integrated. In the eighteenth equation below, this value was just the summation of that from the autonomous truck, (AADTT ADJUSTED INPUT) AT-S2, as well as from the non-autonomous trucks. This calculation seemed to be more complicated due to that various lane distribution law which are being used for bot non autonomous together with autonomous struck as per the general expression given in equation nineteen (Darter et al.2014).
Determination of the equivalency factor for autonomous trucks having uniform wander distribution.
The key distress may be affected by controlled vehicle positioning which are rutting and have fatigue cracking thus developing the EF values depending on distresses forms. In these two cases, the process also consists of pavement performance comparative analysis as a result how vehicle use various distribution wander such as, uniform, normal and zero wanders. The predicting pavement performance methodology always follows the three step MEPDOG performance prediction logarithm (Tapsoba et al.2014).
Step one comprised of the critical strain responses based on the typical reference load that is 80 KN single axle together with dual tire load was also predicted using elastic analysis layer. The pavement structure model in the following case comprised of 15 cm of asphalt concrete, aggregate base of 20 cm (250kPa), together with AASTO A-4 subgrade (50 kPa modulus). The pavement structure is only typical for an interstate highway classification, that was being focus to this paper analysis. As per the case of pavement ME design software, the best pavement responses in consideration to fatigue crack was the strain tensile at the asphalt concrete layer bottom and vertical strain used for rutting at the intermediate depth point (of 0.625, 1.875, 3.75, 6.25 8.75 as well as 13.75 cm under the surface of the pavement).
2. Traffic analysis for junction design (20%)
Traffic flow of vehicles from March 2019 to 2029
AADT=3015.747+3878.551xLocation+17.722xVehicles+57.072xMunicipalities-1656.733xAgricultuture+22.293xLabourforce-2324.493xIndustrial +33.239xPopulation -1.931xSales-3312.919xRecreation-740.708xResidential.
R2= 0.378
MAPE = 31.99%
A160 Journey Times
A1173 Journey Times
A180 Journey Times
Congestion – Delays and Queues – Opening Year 2019
Congestion – Delays and Queues – Design Year 2029 – Core Scenario
Summery of kilometres by Vehcles
Low and High Sensitivity Results
High Matrix
In order to have the production of the scenario of high growth, there was lowering of the uncertainty threshold. This was done so that all foreseeable reasonable developments from the log of uncertainty could be included in the forecast of the growth.
• Scenario of High Growth , 2015 to 2019 = +2.5% x √(2016-2012) = +5.0%
• Scenario of High Growth Scenario, 2015 to 2023 = +2.5% x √(2023-2012) = +8.3% • High Growth Scenario, 2012 to 2031 = +2.5% x √(2031-2012) = +10.9%
• Scenario of High Growth Scenario, 2015 to 2029 = +2.5% x √(2041-2012) = +13.5%
There was use of similar scenario in the determination of low growth.
: • Scenario of Low Growth , 2015 to 2019 = -2.5% x √(2016-2012) = -5.0%
• Scenario of low Growth , 2015 to 2023 = -2.5% x √(2023-2012) = -8.3% • Low Growth Scenario, 2012 to 2031 = -2.5% x √(2031-2012) = -10.9%
• Scenario of low Growth Scenario, 2012 to 2029 = -2.5% x √(2041-2012) = -13.5%
Junction Sketch and Description
The two routes A160 and A180 are known for the provision of the strategic link between the two portas as well as the networks of the motorway through M180 and M18.
Figure 4: A sketch of route A160
Despite the fact the local road networks in the SHB’s vicinity are basically trafficked lightly, the A160 between Immingham and A180 have since remained to the greatest single constraints to the development of the area. The key features as well as locations of the A160 are as shown in the figure or sketch below. It is important to note that the section which is found between the Habrough Roundabout and (Brocklesby Junction) is just but a single carriageway and it is 2Km. This is then followed by a dual carriageway section whose length is approximately 2.5km to the Roundabout of Manby Road. A single carriageway section which is almost 700m is known to connect the entrance of the Immingham Port through west gate to the Roundabout of Manby Road.
Figure 5: A sketch of the proposal
There is high proportion of Heavy Goods Vehicle commonly refered (HGV) on A160 due to the heavy traffic of freight which serves the port. The varying percentage of AADT is between 35% and 45%. It has been discovered that at some points, there is up to 70% rise in the HGV proportions (Khattab, El-Badawy and Elmwafi 2014).
3.0 Traffic analysis for pedestrian safety (10%)
Pedestrian safety traffic analysis
Management based on the particular crossing facilities is known as measures ensuring that the existing crossings are made easier and safer. One of the measures on infrastructure is to provide a new cross. Some of the measures that are being explained in the section are:
- Putting pedestrian crossing marking on carriageways which are being combine normally with traffic sign.
- Putting the traffic signal that control pedestrian crossing at the road stretches and intersections.
Mark such as zebra crossing is put at the pedestrian crossing so as to make even cars give way to pedestrian crossing the road. Some of the traffic signal put within the pedestrian crossing are always being activated using push-button. At the intersection point, signal which actuate vehicles are therefore being design in a way which ensure that traffic flow is commonly optimized.
The following are other measures which also being combined with infrastructure
- Increase in pedestrian crossing
- Separating grade crossing that is subways and footbridge
- Putting guard rails of pedestrian
- Ensuring refuge especially on traffic island at the pedestrian crossing
- Putting school crossing patrols
- Making pavement very wide at the intersection.
An increase in pedestrian crossing is taken as an elevated road section in which the crossing has been increase to reach the height of the curbstone. However, this design helps in lowering driving speed as well as making it easier for crossing for every pedestrian, especially those who push prams or even for the wheelchair users. Refuge means ‘’rest stop’’ to the pedestrian crossing road. This also use in separating opposing traffic streams, hence making frontal collisions is less likely (Yang et al.2017).
Fences are one of the pedestrian guard rail designed so as to lead pedestrians to the protected crossing facilities, guard rail are divided in two types that is the convectional type and visual, where some bars are removed to as to improve the visibility. Widening of the pavement consist of moving the curbstone towards the traffic lane, therefore making it narrow as well as reducing the distance covered when crossing the road.
The impact safety measures are also showed in the performance evidence section, although are not being considered within comment elsewhere. Some other infrastructure and management such as maintenance of road, calming of traffic as well as regulation of speed may also facilitate pedestrian crossing. The road safety measures handbook of Elsevier contained a very detailed description based on the impact of all the traffic control together with pedestrian crossing facilities measures based on mobility, environment as well as the safety of the traffic. The handbook data give a clear presentation is based on comprehensive international studies meta-analysis.
The are some variation base on nation within the Highway Code, which is in road design as well as within legal requirement based on pedestrian facilities. Most of the countries always give crossing facilities at the corner block, whereas some do not. In countries such as France together with Nordic countries, through the application of the law, motorist is expected to create ways for pedestrian at the corner of a block.
Zebra crossing facilities limitation
- In cases, some drives do not make any stop even if the see pedestrian waiting at the road side.
- Sometime is become very difficult for partial or total blind people to allocate zebra crossing than other light crossing.
- Sometime the collision is created where the pedestrian crossing is being expecting the driver to stop but the drive fails.
Highway Legislation
Transport development within the local area though provide remote access to such regions facilitate illegal practices such as cutting down of trees. Most of the study records display that approximately two-thirds of the forests brought down is linked to the infrastructural transport construction. Forest clearance by its own is associated by a number of problems like air pollution, noise nuisance and increased number of accidents (Chu and Fwa 2016).
One of the great challenge which affect the development of both the developed and developing countries at the same proportion is movement to the urban centers. The sector of transport is associated with almost a quarter of carbon dioxide emitted to the global system. Apprehensions are also on the verge of increase regarding the effects it has on the quality of life in urban areas, comprising of social inequities, and also the impacts of the associated pollution has to the buildings and to the health of individuals.
There has been an observed rapid demand in the general transport activity, both for the freight and passengers, and the number is expected to double come 2050. In the next few years, an expectation of multiplication of global vehicle fleet by around three – four fold is likely to take place, but mainly in the third world countries. A belief is set on such expectations that by 2050, almost two – thirds of the global vehicle fleet will be within the non-OECD countries. On the other hand, there is no improvement in technology that has occurred, for example, fuel efficient vehicles have not been launched and also there is no rapid development observed for sources of power to scope with this highly growing technology.
An initiative, Share the Road led by UNEP promotes the inclusion of Non-Motorized Transport infrastructural system within the investment of urban roads as dictated by the policy. The body merges the itineraries for extenuating changes in climate, enhancing safety on the roads and facilitating access to indispensible services through devoting in the infrastructure of NMT.
The aim of the global initiative in Latin America concerning promotion of rapid bus transit as well as sustainable system of transport is to expedite a move to the public and Non-Motorized transport from private motorization. Partnership for vehicles and clean fuels is the other initiative that coordinates programs targeting at minimizing emissions from vehicle industry within the developing countries to enhance on the quality of urban air (Pierce and McGovern 2014).
The body also offers a greater support to the campaign for road safety “Make Roads Safe” which offers a point of focus to both the international institutions, planning management for roads, politicians and vehicle manufacturers. It greatly lays a platform to help reduce the chances of occurring accidents among children and poor communities within the developing countries.
Other policies
Regulations concerning vehicles on roads i.e., construction and usage, set a new standard to be met by the currently developed vehicles with consideration on exhaust emissions as well. Test on heavy goods is performed by the body, Vehicle & Operation Services Agency (VOSA), at the roadside to eliminated further use of smoke generating vehicles before a proper action is taken. It is only the traffic police who have the mandate to bar the movement of smoking vehicles on the roads in case it is of great danger to other road users.
A report can also be taken to the Vehicle and Operator Services Agency (VOSA) on vehicles producing large amounts of smoke. The body then notifies the owner of the vehicle to make necessary adjustments on the equipment. However, no technique has been devised to report privately owned vehicles to the VOSA body.
Leaded Fuel
Currently, vehicles driven by petroleum products have shifted to unleaded fuel as the sale for these petroleum products was burned. For the few number of vehicles which may not operate on unleaded fuels, some filling stations are available that offer special replacement of petrol. Fuel manufacturers and transporters who wish to retain the availability and supply of petrol must be authorized and have legal rights issued by the transport department.
CONCLUSION
There is an accord on the move to ensure an improved system of transportation. This however calls for a fundamental change in the patterns of investment, with attempts of minimizing or limiting trips made over the integrated land and proper planning within the sector of transport. Also, it is of great help to the individuals to designate a move to other modes of transport which are friendly to the environment and to develop more improved fueled vehicles, which seems to reduce by great percentage the emissions of greenhouse gasses and air pollution within the urban areas. Guidelines on public transport and green cities as well as technologies which are friendly to the environment, standards and regulations, need to be installed to help reduce traffic volumes and waste gas emissions. Different partners and government receive support from the UNEP to instigate policies investments and technologies that result into low emission of carbon and lay a foundation for green transport.
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