QUESTION
What forms of resistance have members of Pacific Island societies drawn on when opposing or enduring colonial or post-colonial systems of oppression and exploitation?
SOLUTION
The Samoa Islands lie north of New Zealand. It is a Polynesian formation comprising of two large islands Upolu and Savaii and two other only inhabited islands, Manono and Apolima. The Samoa Islands are known to be the original homelands of the Polynesians. Polynesians spread across the rest of the South Pacific and then to New Zealand from Samoa, some 2000 years ago.
A Dutchman, Jacob Roggeveen was the first European to hit the Samoan Islands in 1722. A French explorer Louis Antoine de Bougainville called the islands ‘the Navigators Islands’.
Reverend John Williams is creditable for introducing the Christian gospel to Samoa when he visited Savaii in 1830. It was then, when most of the Samoan population converted to Congregationalism.
Possession of Samoa started to surface in the late 19th century. In 1899 Samoa was divided between Germany and United States as Western Samoa and Eastern Samoa respectively. New Zealand occupied Western Samoa during the First World War in 1914 and ruled it until 1962 under the mandate from the League of Nations.
The Background Framing New Zealand’s oppression
Samoa was hit with its worst ever Influenza outbreak in 1918 when the New Zealand trading ship Talune docked in Apia. The ship was carrying people infected with Spanish influenza. The epidemic killed over 8,000 Samoans that year (Misatauveve, A.M., June, 2011). It is one of most remorseful event to occur in Samoa under New Zealand’s administration. Thereafter, Samoan people began to show resistance against New Zealand administration leading to New Zealand’s oppression. As cited by Field, M., 2006, gunning down eight unarmed independence demonstrator on Black Saturday – December 28, 1929, led to the formation of pro movement, the Mau movement. The firing killed pro Samoan leaders including high chief Tupua Tamasese. The New Zealand added to its tragic blunders in Samoa by ruthlessly suppressing the Mau movement, which was majorly a pacifist association.
Field does not hesitate to mark that the New Zealand administrators were paternalistic, racists and repressive to forcefully suppress any Samoan moves inclined towards their independence.
Colonel Robert Tate, who the Governor of Samoa from 1919 to 1923 criticized democratic nature of New Zealand troops towards Samoans as it created a “notion that they [Samoans] were as good as the white man”. After him, George Richardson (1923-28) cited the pacifist Mau workers as rebellions and violent. Even the brief period under Colonel Stephen Allen from May 1928 – April 1931 is stated as tragic and bloody.
Resentful Colonial Administration in Samoa
New Zealand, like other colonial powers practiced paternalistic policies towards Samoans. Thus, Samoans had begun to object to their interference to their daily customs and traditions. The Samoans developed immense discontentment against the New Zealand administration, when it started intruding into their rights over titles. In 1922, Samoan Offenders Ordinance gave the administrators power to banish the Samoan people.
Clark, D.J., 2000, the law was exploited the most during the Mau resistance during the late 1920s and early 1930s. The New Zealand authorities continued to banish Samoan people regularly to meet the political demands. As many as 14 chiefs were banished in1924. Olaf Nelson, the leader of the Mau movement was deported to New Zealand in 1927 and his subsequent habeas corpus application directly made to the Privy Council failed on jurisdictional grounds. Samoa, despite having civil procedure rules e for extraordinary remedies, had no provision for habeas corpus (Clark, David J, 2000).
The Influenza epidemic
Tomkins, S.M. 1992, gives the account of the Influenza pandemic of 1918-19. The epidemic has been ranked second worst after the 14th century Black Death in the history of epidemic diseases. The Western Samoa lost 22 percent of its population during the influenza outbreak in mere two weeks. The massive loss of life due to the epidemic led to rapid transformation in the family and political structure of Samoa. Repressively, in 1919 the Royal commission of the epidemic declared that there had been no Influenza epidemic in Western Samoa. However, it is documented in the Samoan history that on 7 November, 1918, the New Zealand Cargo ship Talune carrying people infected with Spanish Influenza, was allowed to be docked in Apia. It led to the outbreak of the disease in Western Samoa killing one-fifth of its people.
Samoa was already inflicted with disorganized health facilities under the New Zealand’s colonial administration. Thus, the affected inhabitants could not cope with the rapidly spreading epidemic. The New Zealand Administrator, Lieutenant-Colonel Robert Logan was held responsible by the Samoans for not quarantining Talune in Samoa. He even rejected medical assistance from American Samoa. The event caused great resentment among the Samoans for New Zealand administration and the then Administrator, Colonel R.W. Tate (1920-23) had to cope with it after Logan left Samoa in 1919 and never returned (New Zealand History Online, 2009).
Resistance Movement against New Zealand Administration
The devastating influenza epidemic and poor and neglected administration by New Zealand authorities had led to widespread resistance movement against the colonial rule by the late 1920s. In October and November 1926, two public meetings held in Apia, which provided a forum to put forward their grievances against colonial rule. These were prepared for formal submission to the New Zealand government.
Major General George Spafford Richardson, believing that the Samoans were stirred by some local European agitators, blocked a Citizen’s Committee plan to meet the government’s Minister of External Affairs. He wrote in letter read in the meeting held in Apia on 12 November, 1926, “I do not approve of a political meeting which mixes Native politics with European politics, as its tendency must be to disturb the peace, order, and good government of the Natives”, (AJHR, 1928).in 1927, the organization called the League of Samoa got recognition from the Citizen’s Committee. It became to be known as O le Mau a Samoa – ‘the firm opinion of Samoa’ – the Mau. The popularity and support for the Mau grew rapidly since then. Olaf Nelson-founded The Samoan Guardian played important role in gathering massive support for the movement, which directly opposed the Government’s journal, the Samoan Times.
Soon, the organization established its headquarter at Vaimoso under the leadership of Tupua Tamasese Leolofi III. The rapidly growing support for the movement forced the New Zealand’s Minister of External Affairs to intervene in the matter. Richardson was prompted to issue a public statement ordering the Mau to disband. Not only this, but it also required the governor to deport non-Samoans, who were believed to rouse the local activists. However, the colonial resistance led to greater Samoan control on the movement after forcefully ousting the Europeans of it.
The Mau then lead a non-aggressive resistance to administration by boycotting official meetings and official visits administered by the government. Villages stopped visiting the officials and children were no more sent to the government schools. Agriculturalists showed their support by leaving coconuts to rot and stopping the banana plantations. Samoans showed strong resistance by not paying taxes and rather advancing that money to the support of the Mau movement ((Ministry for Culture and Heritage, 2009).
The Course Accelerating the Mau Campaign
Albert, W., 1965 has given an account of two years of Mau in Western Samoa. With growing oppressiveness of New Zealand as the mandatory power, the native political consciousness increased. When Richardson arrived in Samoa, the administration had already started spreading favorable publicity for him through the Samoa Times. They largely intended to put an impression that Richardson would be sympathetic to the local demands and bring the anti-administration activities to rest.
In 1923, Richardson easily managed to win the support of the natives after he nominated three members of Apia citizenry to the Legislative Assembly. While, the citizens saw the council as a great avenue to make their grievance heard, little did they know that it was in fact created to dash their hopes. In 1923, the nominated members were replaced with six elected members, which led to greater local control on the council. However, in the late 1925, Richardson began to confront the elected member on every occasion. They were frequently outvoted by the majority, and were never allowed to have more elected members, despite continuous pleas. Nonetheless, the citizens continued showing resistance within the council.
Soon, the citizens were again forced to use extra-constitutional means to agitate against the tyranny of government. It occurred when the question of a Municipality of Apia arose. While citizens were opposing it Richardson was firm at granting it.
Having these events given way to the extra-constitutional means of agitation, many leading citizens took out active processions. The year 1926 had gathered enough storms to start resistance movements. On September 1, 1926, Olaf Nelson made audacious the local grievances in his interview in New Zealand with Prime Minister J.G Coates and the Minister of External Affairs, W. Nosworthy.
The roots of radical resistant movement began when Nelson prepared a draft of grievances to be be put before Nosworthy by the Citizen’s Committee. Nosworthy was due to visit Western Samoa in October, 1926. However, just when the Samoans would have attended the meeting with all enthusiasm to expose the administrative neglect, it was known that Nosworthy’s visit has been postponed for six months.
At the same time, the European-Samoans being alienated by the administration were also forming anti-administration groups. These groups were largely responsible for uniting Apia and Samoa for combined anti-colonial efforts. Soon, these groups started following Mau, when found no place in Richardson’s ‘malo’.
In September, 1926, the administrative authorities sensed the secret plotting under Nelson to overthrow administration. A meeting at the home of one of the leading citizen, Sam Meredith home appeared fearsome to the authorities. The meeting had in the agenda the plan to invite Nosworthy to Samoa in October.
After a series of events, a year later in September 1927, New Zealand government appointed a Royal Commission to hear grievances against the administration. It too proved unworthy and deceptive. Despite evidences and 150 complaints against Richardson, the Commission gave verdict in support of Richardson. Richardson along with the commission upheld the view the Mau does not represent real local grievances, but is influenced by a group of European.
Soon the key half-European activists and Nelson were deported to New Zealand in 1928. However, it could not stop Nelson to continue resistance from Auckland. Nelson filed petitions to the New Zealand government and earned support from the opposition Labour Party.
The year 1928 witnessed the Mau campaign gaining more intensity. In January, this year Mau policemen began enforcing ban on European stores in Apia. Consequently, Richardson called for two New Zealand-based Royal Navy warships to be sent to Samoa. The Marines are ordered to enforce laws prohibiting Mau activities.
The authorities had started making arrests of the activists. After the arrest of some 400 Mau to the detention centers, hundreds more stepped up to give themselves up to the jails. As a result, the humiliated Richardson left Samoa in April 1928.
Black Saturday and the Final resistance
The next successor, Colonel Stephen Allen enforced police action to eradicate the Mau. In November, 1928, in a violent clash between police and Mau, Tupua Tamasese Lealofi was arrested for six months.
December 28, 1929 laid foundation to the final resistance after the worst incident in New Zealand-Samoa blood-strained history. It was during a peaceful Mau parade, which was taken out to welcome open home two members after their exile in New Zealand ended. The police opened fire on the crowd, killing eight, as it approached the station. The fire injured prominent Mau leader Tupua Tamasese Lealofi III and killed Migao, Leota Anese, Tapu, Ainoa, Faumuina of Savai’I, Vele and Tu’ia.
The tragic event led to deep grievance among many Samoans. The government dealt with it with forceful deportation of activists including Nelson. The citizens showed strong resilience by supporting Mau. The government faced deep criticism for its repressive administration.
Finally, in 1935 the Labour Party came into power in New Zealand. In 1936, a goodwill mission’ to Apia gave legitimate status to Mau and revoked Nelson’s exile. The Samoan Offenders Ordinance was also repealed as a major Samoan reform. At last, the decolonization trend after the Second World War prepared Samoans for self-government.
References
Albert, W., 1965. ‘Guardians and Wards’ : (A study of the origins, causes, and the first two years of the Mau in Western Samoa.). CHAPTER II — ‘THE MAU’ — (1926 – 1927). Victoria University of Wellington.
Boyd, M., 1980. The Journal of Pacific History. Coping With Samoan Resistance after the 1918 Influenza Epidemic
Clark, David J., & McCoy, Gerard. 2000. Habeas corpus: Australia, New Zealand, the South Pacific. New Zealand of History. New Zealand’s Twentieth Century Pacifics
Field, M. 2006. Black Saturday: New Zealand’s Tragic Blunder in Samoa
Misatauveve Melani Anae. ‘Samoans – History and migration’, Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, updated 28-Jun-11 URL: http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/samoans/1
Ministry for Culture and Heritage, 2009. New Zealand History online. URL: http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/media/photo/reporting-influenza-pandemic-samoa, (Ministry for Culture and Heritage), updated 23-Jul-2009
Tomkins, S.M., 1992. The Journal of Pacific History. The Influenza Epidemic of 1918-19 in Western Samoa. Vol. 27. No.2. Taylor & Francis,
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