Answers

1. Philosophical ethics should be appropriately reasoned and not be based on emotion. This is because emotions tends to be irrational, fickle, partial as well as unreliable. Hence, if philosophical ethics is based on emotions it would be a poor guide to consistency and fairness and these are the core requirements in the conception of morality. The moral principles are based on the moral theories and frameworks. The philosophical ethics should be based on reason which might be for or against an action. The moral reasons should connect to the fundamental interest and welfare of an individual and essentially should over-ride the non-moral reasons. The moral reasons should be more serious, weighty and fundamental. A justified, correct and right moral judgement is considered to be one with the best reason in support.
2. Science cannot be considered to be value-free but is value-laden. There is complete agreement to the view. The first aspect involves the fact that research is expense oriented. Secondly, the research study involves gathering of extensively elaborate data. Science is inherently evaluative based on understanding of science as it focuses on the values that govern the policy and practice of science. Science values are required to be identified, clarified as well as evaluated on the basis of non-epistemic values. And there is also the requirement to maintain and protect the constitutive or the epistemic values. Thus, it can be concluded that science is inherently as well as contextually value laden.

Constitutive and Contextual values in Science:

Constitutive values are the values that are integral to the goals of science and it also differentiates science from other activities. Examples of substances that cannot be eliminated from science includes truth, accuracy, elegance, simplicity and predictability.

Contextual values in Science are considered to be the values that are derived from the socio-cultural environment, informing the views regarding what ought to be and what is the best. It aids in identification as well as prioritization of the problems for inquiry.  It provides information about the theories that are developed, tested and funded. Examples include alternate sources of energy like solar, nuclear, coal seam gas and fossil fuels.

Appropriate role of values in biotechnological science

The method, origin and nature of science aids inferring that the values of the science are committed to the standards of rights and wrong and is inclined largely towards the social aims. The social role and the function of science promotes the suggestion that it is right to use science for the development and regulation of the human social life. And if it is morally and ethically wrong then it is not used for the development and regulation purpose. Based on the Glass’s principles it can be stated that ethical science values are based on the complete truthfulness, honesty in dealing involving no theft of ideas or data or there is no self-aggrandizement at the expense of other researchers. It should aid in defending the intellectual freedom of the scientific inquiry and opinion. There should be obligations in relation to the communications of research findings. They should value the independent review as well as the subjects for autonomy and welfare. A favourable risk to benefit ratio also known as beneficence should be calculated. Science is ineluctably involved in values which is committed to standards of right and wrong moves towards the social aims.

• Clinical services in Biotechnology ensures the avoidance of the recurrence of problematic aspects of past eugenic practices. This is because the Eugene policies promote the dominant traits and violates the right of human being for reproduction hence, killing the human diversity causing extreme discrimination. In case of biotechnology the eugenics may multiply and not essentially prevent the genetic mistakes. The historical overview emphasizes on the Nazi regime that was a racial hygiene program that illustrated involuntary sterilization, culminating of genocide that targeted the schizophrenics, Jews, blacks, gypsies, homosexuals and the mentally ill people. The past era majorly believed in the biological heritability of the talents as well as the behavioural traits.

Biotechnology can avoid the dangers of eugenics by executing justice based analysis. There should be appropriate balance between the liberties, rights and interests of an individual with respect to the social goods.

Present biotechnology era results in laissez-faire eugenics and hence it is not fundamentally different from the past eugenics era. In the present day, eugenics emphasizes on the modification patterns of the human heredity for the betterment of humanity on the whole. It illustrates the fact that it provides a better chance for prevailing of the less suitable by the process of judicious mating. It aims at improving the quality of the gene pool. Biotechnology revolution is considered as a second large scale attempt for modifying the human heredity. Thus, it can be stated that biotechnology revolution is on the slippery slope to the old eugenics. The new genetic techniques, goals and practices are considered to be morally equivalent to the old eugenics based on whether the individual as well as the social interests were justly pursued.

• Human genes cannot be patented. The reason is explained below:

Patenting of the organisms or the extracts from the indigenous animals or plants that are already known to the local population is termed as biopiracy. Patenting human genes can be promoted only when there has been sufficient amount of transformation performed. This is because patenting hinders research. This is because patent provides the owners the intellectual property rights on the patented genome sequence for approximately 20 years. Hence, other researchers will not be allowed to work on the patented gene other than the owner.

Patenting a gene leads to monopolization of genes. The decision of the owner of the patented gene may not allow the other researchers to look at the patented genome that may lead to a monopoly and foster a secretive culture in the research.

Patenting gives the right to the owner to exclude everyone from researching on that particular patented gene. Patenting a gene slows the medical results since the owner of the patented gene has the soul right to proceed with enhanced research related to the gene. Thus a test done related to the organism has to be sent to the owner for the gene to be tested which causes delay in the results obtained.