Question:

Learning Objectives for this Assignment

A literature review is one of the major tasks in any research project. It is a piece of discursive prose, not a list describing or summarising one piece of literature after another.

To gain maximum marks for this first assignment you will need to:

• Select a topic of interest and write 2000 words Mini Literature Review including the following
• Develop a research question about a topic that you might want to investigate (be very specific)
• Find relevant research articles
• Read and critically evaluate peer-reviewed journal articles (6 or more articles)
• Write a review/synthesis on the research
• Use Swinburne Harvard reference style- pay particular attention to citations and references
• Base your work on the grading rubric (See Below).

Referencing

Read the section on Referencing that can be found in the Unit Outline.

You must use the Swinburne Harvard Referencing style throughout your assessment and include an accurate reference list at the end of the assessment.

Submission Requirements

• You must submit a hard copy (directly to your teacher) and a soft copy (via blackboard)
• Do not email the assessment to the teacher
• Keep a backup of your submission
• The assessment should be:
  • In one single Microsoft Word document
  • Written in 12 point font size
  • Written in 1.15 line spacing
• Pages of the assessment should have footers which include:
  • Your name
  • Student ID
  • Unit code
  • Assessment title
  • Page numbers

It is expected that all work submitted will have been edited for spelling, grammar and clarity.

Unit Learning Outcomes

In the Unit Outline, there are a list of Unit Learning Outcomes; this assessment relates to the following outcomes:

1. Present research and findings using appropriate registers.
2. Demonstrate the ability to write clearly and concisely in a range of registers with a major focus on writing a literature review
3. Demonstrate the ability to think critically and creatively.
4. Demonstrate an understanding of the way in which the library works and is crucial to the research process

Answers:

Introduction

Migraine is an incapacitating disorder that accompanies life in a manner that it or the risk of its come back is constantly present, besides yet undetectable to other people.  Migraine is a widespread disorder that affects nearly three times women as compared to men. Nonetheless, migraine as a deliberating condition is an often unrecognized, as well as underrated and only around 50 per cent of individuals meeting the criteria of the condition had received the needed treatment along with the diagnosis.  Migraine is characterized by a sequence of throbbing headaches with linked symptoms, like photophobia, vomiting, or phonophobia. Nonetheless, the impacts of a migraine are not limited to pain linked to an attack like periods between one attack and the subsequent (Martin et al., 2016, pp. 292). This implies that a migraine may be seen as an ongoing sequence of suffering since it entails treating the present attack, as well as worrying regarding the subsequent cycle of the disorder. The mini literature will investigate a migraine among women because women have been found to get more migraine than men in the society. Therefore, the research question that will be examined is: why women get more migraine than men? The literature will explore different studies that have explored this subject in order to answer the question successfully.

Prevalence

Migraine is a widespread chronic-occurring condition of the idiopathic cause that is rated amongst the global leading 20 causes of disability. According to Adeney et al. (2006), there is evidence in the incidence of a migraine in females than men, in which it has been established that the lifetime occurrence of migraine in females to be between the ages of 11 and 32 per cent and the 1-year incidence in females to be around 9-22 per cent. The study showed that females are about three times as probable as males to suffer from the disorder, while the incidence in females is highest in the reproductive periods (Adeney, Flores, Perez, Sanchez & Williams, 2006, pp. 1089). Consequently, reproductive-aged females bear the biggest trouble of a migraine. Furthermore, the women have acknowledged that the frequencies of health consultation along with the identification of a migraine were inferior among the Latin America people than in developed nations. According to the American Migraine Prevalence and Prevention (AMMP) research, the predominance of migraine was established to be greatest amongst individuals 30-39 years in which the prevalence amongst women (24.4 per cent) were more than 3 times as compared to men (7.4 per cent). The incidence was established to be lowly in elder than 60 years (5.0 per cent females, 1.6 per cent men). Accordingly, even amongst those with12-17 years, women had a greater occurrence of the condition at about 6.4 per cent contrasted with men at 4.0 per cent (Lipton et al., 2007, pp. 343).

Sex Hormones and Pregnancy

Studies have shown that migraine is more pronounced in women as compared to males because of the female sex hormones.  Kvisvik et al. (2011) confirmed that a migraine is a debilitating disorder amongst adults that is more widespread amongst females than men. Thus, the incidence of a migraine amongst females than males has been partly attributed to female sex hormones. The authors demonstrated that around one-half to about three-fourths of women migraineurs encounter a decline in the rate or full termination of migraine attacks during pregnancy, primarily in the second, as well as third trimesters. Nonetheless, it has been seen that approximately 40 per cent of people having any migraine encountered pain falling during premature pregnancy. The findings of the study can be explained in different ways (Kvisvik, Stovner, Helde, Bovim & Linde, 2011, pp. 443). In the first trimester of the pregnancy, women experience amplified physiological along with psychological alterations that include hormonal changes, morning sickness, as well as sleep deficiency. Furthermore, Marcus et al (2005) assert that there is increased carefulness amongst women when it comes to utilizing pills in early pregnancy to stop or threat their frequent headaches. During this time, medication is restricted in order to limit some compounds that will affect the developing foetus (Marcus, Furman & Balaban, 2005, pp. 2691)

According to Pavlović et al. (2015), several women migraineurs acknowledge a rise in attacks during the premenstrual period. The authors established that pure menstrual migraine (PPM) develops mainly regularly around the beginning of menarche with occurrence reaching high at about forty years and decreasing as menopause is approaching. Thus, the AAMP research established that about 60 per cent of females that have a migraine recorded a relationship between menses and migraine. PMM was observed in 5.5 per cent of the females that were surveyed plus a menstrual-related migraine (MRM) was observed in 53.8 per cent. Females with menstrual migraine (MM) had many years of migraine start (Pavlović, Stewart & Bruce, 2015, pp. 24). Subsequently, compared with non-menstrual migraines, menstrual migraine women were more probable to result to harm, were much elongated and were further probable to deterioration in 24 hours, raising the burden of a menstrual migraine. Moreover, Macgregor et al. (2011) assert that in addition to a greater incidence of a migraine in females, the trouble of the illness is probably to be higher in females. A menstrual migraine (MM) is extra probable to result in disability when contrasted to non-menstrual migraine women. Therefore, sex is too a risk aspect for chronification of pain, probably because of hormonal variations; females have a greater occurrence of continual everyday pain as compared to men (Macgregor, Rosenberg & Kurth, 2011, pp. 844).

In certain females, a deterioration of a migraine can be the primary sign of pregnancy. Nonetheless, 60-87 per cent of females with MRM get better during the second and third trimester of the pregnancy. It has been found that 4-8 per cent of females can worsen, with uneven number females with aura in this category. Migraine can commence for the initial time in pregnancy, frequently during the first trimester, as well as a major part of such females presently with migraine with aura. The worsening of a migraine during pregnancy has been associated with hormonal variations and plausible nausea, dryness, sleep deficiency plus depression. According to Martin et al. (2016), for numerous women, the perimenopausal period comes with aggravating migraines. Whilst the normal period of menopause in America is 51 years, perimenopuase begins in the former years, as well as marks the conclusion of the reproductive years. Thus, this changeover is due to changing ovarian role with changing levels of hormones leading to uneven periods, hot flashes, insomnia, difficulty in attention, as well as a declining libido. This frenzied hormonal changes may result in greater migraine rate plus deteriorating ruthlessness, as well as some females with previous dormant disease might see come back of migraine attacks. Moreover, for the females with MRM, asymmetrical cycles are experienced making migraine attacks impulsive plus management more demanding. Specifically, female with a record of premenstrual condition seems to have a substantially elevated danger for greater incidence of pain in the first time mense (Martin et al., 2016, pp. 294).

Obesity

Researchers reviewed data from 12 studies that involved 288,981 individuals and found that obese individuals have around 21 per cent increased the risk of migraines, compared to that healthy weight. Current studies found that a prospective function of obesity on migraine results. Thus, obesity arises with many severe ache syndromes. Migraine and obesity are both greatly widespread disorders in the populace, as well as reports in studies stress this relationship. A growing number of studies report recommend that obesity is a threat factor for migraine advance plus incidence in adults (Stewart, Wood, Reed, Roy & Lipton, 2008, pp, 1171).

Obesity among women who are pregnant has been linked to a frequent migraine that is causing more harm in these women in the form of headaches. Vo et al. (2011) found that there are positive relationships of obesity, as well as a migraine that has been constantly seen in reproductive aged females. In a group of 3,373 females interviewed in early pregnancy, the authors found that comparative to common weight females, women with obesity had a 1.48-fold amplified odds of developing the problem of a migraine. Severely overweight and morbidly overweight women had the biggest odds of a migraine. Thus, the established relationship amid obesity and migraine is biologically credible due to obesity, comorbid with ache conditions that include a migraine, shares mutual pathophysiological features that include general irritation plus derangements in adipose-tissue resultant cytokines (Vo et al., 2011, pp. 560).

Peterlin  et al. (2010) performed a study to establish the association amid obesity plus a migraine based on age and gender. An entirety of 21,783 respondents were incorporated in the Peterlin’s investigation to assess the occurrence of an headache in those with besides without common obesity along with abdominal obesity, as well as the impact of gender in addition to age on the relationship. The study established that men and women aged between 20 and 55 years that greater migraine occurrence was linked to both whole plus abdominal obesity. Thus, the research showed that women at the reproductive years with obesity develop migraine problems (Peterlin, Rosso, Rapoport& Scher, 2010, pp. 54. The study found that the association amid a migraine plus obesity is high during the reproductive age, where the prevalence among women is modulated by a reproductive status of obese women. This was supported by Vo et al. (2011) that established a considerable relationship between obesity and migraine besides that the odds of migraine augmented with growing obesity standing, especially among pregnant women. It was established that recurrent migraine was linked to overweight. The mainstream of general populace studies of mainly reproductive-aged persons (mean age<50) has shown a considerable relationship between a migraine and obesity. The first cross-sectional population-based research showing a relationship amid obesity, as well as headache of any kind was carried out in Australia. This research comprises more than 14,000 young women between 18 and 23 years (Vo et al., 2011, pp. 563).

Ischemic Stroke

Ischemic stroke comprises around 80 per cent of all kinds of strokes and are due to decreased flow of blood to the brain, thus resulting in damage and death of the brain tissue. Migraines are generally believed a comparatively benign neurological condition and studies have shown that there is an association between migraines and stroke. This relationship has been found to between a migraine accompanied by aura and ischemic stroke. Patients can suffer from migrainous infarction, a subset of ischemic stroke, which often occurs in the posterior circulation of younger females. According to Kurth & Diener (2012), demonstrate that there is a link between the augmented threat of a migraine among females and the use of oral contraceptive and pills. In addition, hypercoagulability induced by the hormonal changes can explain the increased risk of stroke for youthful women resulting in a migraine (Kurth & Diener, 2012, pp. 3421).

Studies have demonstrated that there is a relationship between migraine as well as ischemic stroke among women. This vascular threat is chiefly linked to a migraine with aura most classically in young females than men that seem independent of other risks. Spector et al. (2010) in their meta-analysis found that the danger of stroke was twofold in those people with a migraine with aura, as well as thrice in the women cohort. In addition, it seems that aura rate of more than once a monthly and lifetime period of less than one year is linked to an even greater stroke danger. Consequently, the aspects of the association between migraines with aura along with stroke are multifaceted; hormonal impacts are believed to add to the problem. Consequently, augmented oestrogen levels can add to the risk of ischemic stroke through their impact on endothelia role, coagulation aspects, as well as an irritation (Spector et al., 2010, pp. 614). The stroke threat seems to be a higher in females than men and the scale of the rise is superior in females who take greater doses of contraceptive agents (COCs). Therefore, as for several vascular risk factors, the threat seems to be complicated in the occurrence of other factors. Hence, the COCs only front a stroke risk, thus, there is a great deal of apprehension regarding females with aura who uses COC, as well as growing their stroke risk. This implies that oestrogen dose counts when talking about stroke risk and thrombotic risk. Calhoun (2012) claims that the danger of ischemic stroke amongst COC users lowers considerably with lowering oestrogen dose, especially among women who use the doses (Calhoun, 2012, pp. 649). Estrogens doses less than 50µ confer a lower risk as compared to greater doses of estrogens above 50µ (Kashanian, Lakeh, Ghasemi & Noori, 2013, pp. 34).

Summary

The literature has explored the reasons why a migraine is common among women than men. The study has observed different studies that attempt to examine this aspect of incidence of a migraine in females than males. Nearly all studies underscored the fact that migraine is one of the largest a part widespread neurological situation plus is the third most widespread disturbing condition in the world. It is a fact from the discussion above that women are disproportionately affected three times than men in the ratio 3:1, in part because of the hormonal variations with changes in oestrogen that appears to be the primary driver. In addition, ischemic stroke has been linked to the growing incidence of migraine amongst females than males. In addition, obesity has been closely linked to the increasing incidence of migraine amongst females that are overweight. The studies established that the overweight aspect of obesity has continued to affect women who are obese, especially those who are pregnant. Therefore, studies on the high occurrence of a migraine among women offered substantial data; however, there the need to undertake further research to explore the occurrence of a migraine among females. The current literature does not provide considerable reasons for the prevalence of a migraine in women since they have not explored other aspects that make migraine dominance in women than men.

References

Adeney, K., Flores, J., Perez, J., Sanchez, S., & Williams, M. (2006). Prevalence and correlates     of migraine among women attending a prenatal care clinic in Lima, Peru. Cephalalgia, 26(9), 1089-1096.

Calhoun A. (2012). Combined hormonal contraceptives: is it time to reassess their role in   migraine? Headache. 52(04):648–660.

Kashanian M, Lakeh MM, Ghasemi A, & Noori S. (2013). Evaluation of the effect of vitamin E   on pelvic pain reduction in women suffering from primary dysmenorrhea. J Reprod Med, 58(1–2):34–38.

Kurth T, & Diener HC. (2012). Migraine and stroke: perspectives for stroke physicians.     Stroke.43 (2):3421–6.

Kvisvik EV, Stovner LJ, Helde G, Bovim G, & Linde M. (2011). Headache and migraine during             pregnancy and puerperium: the MIGRA-study. J Headache Pain. 12 (1):443–451.

Lipton RB, Bigal ME, Diamond M, Freitag DO, Reed ML, & StewartWF. (2007). AMPP            Advisory Group. Migraine prevalence, disease burden, and the need for preventive    therapy. Neurology. 68(05):343–349.

Macgregor EA, Rosenberg JD, & Kurth T. (2011). Sex-related differences in epidemiological       and clinic-based headache studies. Headache. 51(06):843 (2)–859.

Marcus DA, Furman JM, & Balaban CD.(2005). Motion sickness in migraine sufferers. Expert      Opin Pharmacother. 6:2691–2697.

Marozio L, Facchinetti F, & Allais G. (2012). Headache and adverse pregnancy outcomes: a         prospective study. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 161(02):140–143

Martin VT, Pavlovic J, Fanning KM, Buse DC, Reed ML, & Lipton RB. (2016).Perimenopause   and menopause are associated with high frequency headache in women with migraine: results of the American Migraine Prevalence and Prevention Study. Headache.             56(02):292–305.

Pavlovic JM, Akcali D, Bolay H, Bernstein C, &  Maleki N. (2017).Sex-related influences in        migraine. J Neurosci Res, 95(1–2):587–593.

Pavlović JM, Stewart WF & Bruce CA. (2015). Burden of migraine related to menses: results       from the AMPP study. J Headache Pain. 16 (1):24.

Peterlin BL, Rosso AL, Rapoport AM. &Scher AI (2010). Obesity and migraine: the effect of      age, gender      and adipose tissue distribution. Headache. 50 (1): 52-62.

Spector JT, Kahn SR, Jones MR, Jayakumar M, Dalal D, & Nazarian S. (2010). Migraine headache and ischemic stroke risk: an updated metaanalysis. Am J Med. 123(07):612–         624.

Stewart WF, Wood C, Reed ML, Roy J, & Lipton RB. (2008). AMPP Advisory Group.   Cumulative lifetime migraine incidence in women and men. Cephalalgia. 28(11):1170–8.

Vo M, Ainalem A, Qiu C, Peterlin BL, Aurora SK, Williams MA. (2011). Body mass index and adult weight gain among reproductive age women with migraine. Headache. 51(4),559–            569.