1. Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study

According to Sheehi (2010), the relationship between media and Islamophobia is a symbiotic one that is also integrated with the international social media platform. Recent research shows that the media much influence society’s opinion on Islamophobia. In the case of society’s views on Muslims, Baker et al. (2013) revealed that exposure to negative representations of Islamic cultures in the British media increase negative attitude about the Muslims and Islamic culture, and also support policies that have a negative effect on the Muslim both in Britain and internationally.

Over the last few decades, the competition of international students’ recruitment has increased, especially at the tertiary level, as international education has become a significant export industry. Therefore, generating economic benefits and foreign exchange for universities and receiving destinations.  According to the UK tertiary education statistics agency, more than 450 000 international students have been registered in the British Higher Education in the academic year 2018/2019. This number is approximately 16% of the total students in the United Kingdom. The significant increase in international students has provoked various research focusing on adjusting to the new academic culture and society.

Chon and Artz (2005) depict that racism and religious intolerance has been the primary issues facing international students. They said that most students, especially international students, experienced mistreatment, including physical and verbal abuse, while in British countries. Moreover, Brown et al. (2015), and Ameli et al. (2007) depicts that most international students are dissatisfied with the British media misrepresent Islami culture, which has increased cynical society’s opinions on students from Islamic nations. The results presented by this study led to the research project that aimed at investigating the impacts of the British media on people’s opinions about Islamophobia.

1.2 Research Objectives 

1.2.1 General objective 

To investigate the impacts of the British media on people’s opinions about Islamophobia.

1.2.2 Specific abjective 

• To investigate whether the British media affect people’s opinions about Islamophobia.
• To investigate how British media affect people’s opinions about Islamophobia.

1.3 Research Questions 

• Does British media affect people’s opinions about Islamophobia?
• How does British media affect people’s opinions about Islamophobia?
• Is there a significant backwardness perception among the society about Muslims?
• Is there a significant terrorism perception among the society about Muslims?
• Hd0: Is there a significant conservatism perception among the people about Muslims?

1.4 Significance of the Study

The results of this study form a future reference to students, scholars, and researchers who may aspire to study on the same topic of the social and cultural field. The study may help the researchers and scholars when identifying future areas of the research on the related studies. The study highlighted various topics that require further research and reviewed the numerous studies which identified the research gaps.

The study will assist the government and different stakeholders in education sectors to identify the other type of mistreatment and violation of international students’ rights, which help them in coming up with policies to protect them from increasing legislation of the more international students as a source of foreign income. The study will also help investors investing in higher education.

1. LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1 Introduction

This section contains the theoretical framework of the study and empirical review, which consists of past studies on the British media and Islamophobia and the research hypotheses.   

Theoretical review

Various literature on the effect of media on society’s perceptions of Islamophobia reveals widespread assumptions that the British media are Islamophobic (Ameli et al., 2007; Frost, 2008; Kunst et al., 2013; Saeed, 2007). Several reviews of the research appear to support this, and still, there is evidence that Muslims are negatively presented in the media’s various contents. More so, the cross-government working group on anti-Muslim hatred reports that negative media coverage on Muslims and Islamic culture is shaping society’s views. According to the 2012 report presented to the Leveson inquiry into press standards, stated that there are a serious and systematic anti-muslim reporting problem and racism problem in the British media (Allen, 2014). However, the literature review revealed that the position was more complicated in the UK media. Various relevant reports consist of the conceptual and empirical shortcomings, with also inadequate evidence for comprehensive and Islamophobia. However, the review of the literature revealed a stong homogenized tendency, especially a failure to differentiate consistency between mainstream Islam and violent Islamic (Ewart et al, 2016). Besides, the presence of inevitable juxtaposition of image and words representing Islam about oppressive fundamentalism, war, and terrorism in news items was identical.

Generally, Muslims and Islamic culture in the media is contradictory and, at times, complex (Werbner, 2004). However, the actual nature of the content of the media, and the Muslims’ experience on the content will have the consequences on the security and the association between groups and Muslim in the hostility communities.

Shadid et al. (2002) say that in 1979, during and after the Iranian hostage crisis, the covering of Islam considers the unsystematic sample of reporting used by US media but with British examples. They posit that the media have a strong tendency to of presenting Islam as a negative. The central and recurrent point in their analysis is the tendency of the news contexts for Islam to be treated as a homogeneous and given reality. Their work gained the iconic status in many journalists, and western intellectuals who have been in tertiary education must at least be aware of their critiques.

1.2  Empirical Review

Allen (2004) conducted a study that involved and email exchange and interview with different Muslim professionals between 20 to 50 years. Among them, there were those working in media and their assessment of media coverage post -9/11. He revealed that the participants who were working in the media were unanimous in their cynicism about media and also said that the media are Islamophobic. He used the personal networks to gathered samples, and therefore, there was a presence of the skewed ideology as the researchers were involved in the forum against Islamophobia and racism and the Muslim Public Affairs Committee.

Saeed (2007) conducted a study to reveal the influence of media on people’s perception of Islamophobia.  their data included examples of convoluted reasoning, which exists in Islamophobia’s literature review.  Participants of the study indicated that it is Muslim countries that are faced by all sought of evils where North Korea was given as an example. Besides, they revealed that most people related Islam with terror, whether the media say ‘terrorist’ or ‘Muslim.’ Islam will be negatively related in either way. More so, media was critically associated with Islamophobia, and there was no way it could disappear itself from this.

According to Luqiu et al. (2018), Muslim students in international schools are mistreated on the confusion on the part of the non-muslim community between terrorism and Islam. Their study was a qualitative interviewing Muslim student in international students. They were focused on knowing how Islam was a uniting force for students in international schools. Besides, they wanted to know how Muslim status affected the comfort and safety of the students who experience physical and verbal assault in foreign schools. The European Commission supports this study against Intolerance and Racism. According to the European Commission against Intolerance and Racism, care should be taken on how media takes Islam so that intolerance and bigotry are not encouraged(Brown and Richards, 2016; and Kalin, 2011).

Doulto et al. (2009) posit that there is a serious racism problem in the various reports released by British media. They reported that there consist of relevant reports consists of the conceptual and empirical shortcomings, with also inadequate evidence for comprehensive and Islamophobia. According to the study conducted by Fisher at al. (2010), Hirji (2010), Nadvi and Robinson (2004), and  Nasit (2011), there is a strong homogenized tendency, especially a failure to differentiate consistency between mainstream Islam and violent Islamic. Fisher at al. (2010) revealed the existence of an inevitable juxtaposition of image and words representing Islam about oppressive fundamentalism, war, and terrorism in news items was identical.

Corbett (2014) used Muslim women from North London to study their experience of stigmatization. They were mainly focused on participants’ perceptions of media coverage, although they reported on various observations by their interviewees expressing negative Islamic coverage in the media that could produce a blackish against Islam. Several respondents said that media reports should not mention violated extremists’ avowed religious identity. The participants said that although this is an understandable reaction, the media organizations do meet it. Meer et al. (2009), supported this study by investigating how media contribute to the stigmatization of Muslim students in the UK international school. According to the findings of their study, the relationship between media and the stagnation amount of Muslim students in international universities was significant. They concluded that media organizations should be extra vigilance and sensitive when choosing words and images in reporting about Islamist terrorism. Haddad and Smith (2002) and Semati (2010) investigated the relationship between media reporting and the people’s perceptions about Islam and Muslims. Haddad and Smith (2002)  used a sample of 300 Muslim people living in different places in the UK. The participants said that the media uses images that relate Muslims with Conservatism. This has resulted in a negative perception of people on the Muslims and Islamic culture. Besides, Islamic nations were said to be lying behind in terms of development and economic growth. Futhermore Semati (2010) indicated that Muslims and Islamic nations still hold to traditional cultures, indicating a high level of conservatism and Backwardness. Their study involved qualitative study using different media reports and images to support their study.

According to Sheridan (2006), Lee et al. (2009), and Esposito et al. (2011), the United Kingdom has been deemed to be a primary factor that differentiates general racism and Islamophobia. Therefore, it is not in surprise that the media perception of Muslims is fueled by the notion of cultural differences.  Jaspal et al. (2010) said that in the UK, cultural issues largely come from media coverage of Muslims. In the case of the use of current events or other cultural debates, it is always part of the media narrative.  Generally, media painting and pictures showing cultural differences are more threatening Muslims who are in opposition side of western cultures (Macdonald, 2006; Morey and Yaqin, 2011).  Saeed (2007) revealed a negative image of religion in the British content, which is against the Muslim situation, mostly defined by religious affiliations.  

According to Ahmand (2006) and Aly (2007), there is a society’s perception of Muslim minorities and terrorism. Following the New York attack in 2001, the media’s narrative on the terrorism threat significantly changed people’s perceptions of Muslims. The pictures used to report the terrorist impacts; the language revealed Islam. The society’s option polls exclusion and selection are presented when the polls are designed and reported since they are commissioned by the media (Goodi et al., 2008; Mebane, 2008; and Moore et al., 2008). The British media is exception Sian et al. (2013). It has been measured in various ways from associating Muslims with negatives topics like terrorism, cultural deviance, placing them in the newspaper, and using words to describe the negative activities by Muslims.

Helbling (2013) used western values, which are associated with stigmatization, to study the effect of the Media on Islamophobia. They used perceptions of people about media coverage. Although they reported on various observations by their interviewees expressing negative Islamic coverage in the media, several respondents said that media reports should not mention violated extremists’ avowed religious identity. According to Bayat (2007), the relationship between media and the stagnation amount the Muslim student in international universities was significant. They used the data collected from the Muslim students from various universities in the US. According to the findings of their study, media organizations should be sensitive when choosing words and images in reporting about Islamist terrorism.

1.3 Research hypothesis

Ha0: British media and society’s perception of Islamophobia are significantly related

Ha1: British media and society’s perception of Islamophobia are no significantly related

Hb0: There is a significance backwardness perception of the people about Muslims

Hb1: There is no significance backwardness perception of the people about Muslims

Hc0: There is a significance terrorism perception of the people about Muslims

Hc1: There is no significance terrorism perception of the people about Muslims

Hd0: There is a significance conservatism perception of the people about Muslims

Hd1: There is no significance conservatism perception of the people about Muslims

2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

2.1  Introduction

In this section, the methods of the research applied to objectively establish the association between British media and the society’s options on Islamophobia are described. It shows the population research design, population and sample, sampling techniques, data collection,  research instruments, and data analysis.

2.2  Research Design

This study used a descriptive design.  The research was descriptive as it involved the people’s perceptions and knowledge to describe how British media affect society’s opinion on Islamophobia. With the identification of people’s knowledge and perceptions about the British media, it is possible to identify how British media has influence society’s options on Islamophobia.

2.3 Sample and Sampling

The study targeted Muslim people who have adversely affected by physical and verbal assaults from the society influenced by the British media. The researcher used purposive sampling criteria, where inclusion criteria were;  the participants of the study participants had to be a Muslim, international student, and university student. Variation sampling was after that used to seek the participants in terms of nationality so that the study can have a variety of perceptions and experiences from different regions.  According to Hamzeh et al. (2012),  Muslim work is not homogeneous. Therefore, the response of the participant could depend on his/her nationality.

The research used a sample of 150 international, Muslim university students, which were from different foreign countries, different gender, and different years of study.

2.4  Data collection

Data is the researcher’s information collected from the population or the sample of interest. Access the students was through three universities’ program leaders, recruiting the highest number of students from foreign countries. Data assist the researcher in answering the research hypotheses and questions. This study used primary data that was collected from the will respondents. Wiid and Diggines (2010) defined primary data as information collected directly from the population of interest. Self-administered questionnaires were presented to the respondents who were willing to participate in the study. The researcher used online questionnaires since they are economical and also allowed the researcher to collect detailed information from targeted respondents. Besides, the researcher found it easy to collect data through questionnaires and also ease in compiling since the questions and answers were standardized.

3.5 Research instruments

The researcher used online questionnaires to collect the information involving the influence of British media on the society’s options on Islamophobia. The researcher considered the use of questionnaires since they are the fastest instruments and also the researcher. They are cheaper than other methods of data collection, like interviews. Besides, questionnaires are believed to provide reliable first-hand information and help the researcher reach a large group of people with less time. The questions involved in the research were closed, which enhance the compatibility and reliability of the responses. The closed question is where the researcher has given out the answer, and the respondent is supposed to tick on the answer thought to be most appropriate.

2.5  Data 

The data collected in the study involved information about the influence of British media on society’s influence on Islamophobia. The information provided depending on the student’s understanding and experience about the impact of the British media on Islamophobia. The data used was mainly ordinal and categorical data. The level of student’s understanding and the experience was measured using the 5-points Likert scale, that is, strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, and strongly agree. These levels were given values from 1 to 5, respectively. More so, nominal data was used to indicate the gender of the student.

2.6  Data analysis

After data collection, the researcher sorted, coded, and edited the data for easy analysis. The researcher analyzed the data using IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences. This software was mostly preferred because it was more researcher-friendly. The analysis included both descriptive and inferential analysis. In descriptive statistics, the study used to mean, minimum, and maximum. In inferential statistics, the correlation analyses, to determine the association between British media and society’s opinions on Islamophobia. All the analysis was undertaken at a 95% level of significance, and any significance value greater than 5% will be considered to be insignificant.

3. DATA ANALYSIS, FINDINGS, AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

3.1 Introduction

This section presents the results of the findings of the study, which are based on the objectives of the study. It focusses on the analysis of data collected from International Muslim international students, to establish the impact of British media on society’s options on Islamophobia. Using descriptive analysis, and correlation analysis to determine the association between the British media on society’s options on Islamophobia. The results of the study were presented in tables and graphs for easy interpretation.

3.2 Diagnostic test 

The researcher first carried the diagnostic test for the data collected for the study. The H0 of the test was that the data collected was not normal.  If the p-value was greater than the 5% level of significance, then the researcher would reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the data was normally distributed.

Table 1: the test of Normality

Society’s options on Islamophobia	Kolmogorov-Smirnov	Shapiro-Wilk
Statistic	Df	Sig.	Statistic	Df	Sig.
Backwardness	.187	150	.298	.886	150	.745
Terrorism	.193	150	.274	.852	150	.818
Conservatism	.177	150	.289	.901	150	.723

Table 4.1 shows that the Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk test recorded the sig-values higher than a 5% level of significance. Therefore, rejecting the null hypothesis and conclude that the data used was normally distributed. Thus, it was suitable to conduct the parametric test like correlation analysis.

3.3 Respondents profile

The study included international Muslim students. The total number of participants was a hundred and fifty participants, which included students from different regions across the globe. All students indicated that while in the International Universities, they used the internet to access news from their nations like Vatan, Sabah, Hurriyet, Milliyetare, and NTV for Turkey, BBC online news, and Al Jazeera.

Figure 1: Distribution by gender

From figure one, the highest number of respondents in this study were female with 55.33%, while 44.67% were males.

Figure 2: Education level pursued

From figure 2 above, 38% of the total respondents were pursuing a Master’s Degree. 32% were doing a Bachelor’s Degree, 20% were doing a Doctorate Degree, while 10% were pursuing a Ph.D.

Figure 3: The number of times watched the news

From figure 3, 37.33% of the total respondents watched the news every day, 29.33% said they watched news almost every day, 17.33% said they watch more than three times per week, 9.33% watched less than three times per week, while 6.67% watched the news ones per week.

3.4 Descriptive Statistics

It gives the presentation of the minimum, maximum, mean, mode, median, and standard deviations of the variables used in the study. The analysis of all variables used in this study was obtained using IBM SPSS version 22.

Table 2: Descriptive statistics

	Mean	Median	Standard deviation	Mode	Maximum	Minimum	N
Backwardness	3.376	4.00	.266	5.00	5.00	1.00	150
Terrorism	4.401	4.00	.465	5.00	5.00	2.00	150
Conservatism	3.364	4.00	.321	4.00	5.00	1.00	150

From table 2 above, Backwardness had a mean of 3.376 and a standard deviation of 0.266. The minimum value was 1.00 (strongly disagree), and the maximum value was 5.00 (strongly agree). The mode, which represents the highest number of responses, was 4.00 (somehow strongly agree). Terrorism had a mean of 4.401 and a standard deviation of 0.465. The minimum value was 1.00 (strongly disagree), and the maximum value was 5.00 (strongly agree). The mode, which is the highest number of responses, was 4.00 (somehow strongly agree). Conservativeness had a mean of 3.364 and a standard deviation of 0.321. The minimum value was 1.00 (strongly disagree), and the maximum value was 5.00 (strongly agree). Most of the respondents said that British media somehow strongly influence society to perceive Muslims as conservative religions (mode was 4.00).  Since the mean values of backwardness, terrorism, and conservatism perceptions are greater than 2.5 (the median of 5-points Likert frame), there is a significant society’s perception of Islamophobia.

4.5 Correlation analysis

Table 3: Correlation analysis
	British media and Islamophobia	Gender	Country	Years of study	Watched news
British media and Islamophobia	Pearson Correlation	1	-.171	.173	.140	.133
Sig. (2-tailed)		.000	.000	.001	.000
Gender	Pearson Correlation	-.171	1	-.017	.030	-.243
Sig. (2-tailed)	.000		.406	.148	.002
Country	Pearson Correlation	.573	-.217	1	.154	.324
Sig. (2-tailed)	.000	.406		.008	.000
Years of study	Pearson Correlation	.140	.030	.054	1	.118
Sig. (2-tailed)	.001	.148	.008		.000
Watched news	Pearson Correlation	.478	.112	1	.154	1
Sig. (2-tailed)	.000	.406		.008

 The analysis shows that there was a significant association between the perceptions of the participants and knowledge about British media Influence on society’s perceptions of Islamophobia and Gender, Country of origin, Years of study, and the number of times watched news per week. The association between the British media Influence on society’s perceptions on Islamophobia and Gender was negative (-.171) since the 1 in the indicated the respondent is female, while two indicated the respondent was a male, it shows that most female agreed that British media Influence on society’s perceptions on Islamophobia than males. The Pearson correlation value between British media Influence on society’s perceptions of Islamophobia and Country of origin was positive (0.573). The Pearson correlation value between the British media Influence on society’s perceptions of Islamophobia and the years of study was positive (0.140). This shows that as the student continues to live in international schools, the more the experience of identifying how British media influence on society’s perceptions on Islamophobia. Lastly, the person correlation value between the British media Influence on society’s perceptions of Islamophobia and the number of times the respondents watched the news was positive (0.478). This shows that as the students who watched news have higher experience and knowledge about British media Influence on society’s perceptions of Islamophobia, where most of them agreed that the influence.

4.6 Discussion 

The study used a sample of 150 international Univesity Muslim students to investigate the influence of British media on society’s perceptions of Islamophobia. The researcher first carried the diagnostic test for the data collected for the study where both the Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk test recorded the sig-values greater than 5% level of significance. Therefore, the data was said to be normally distributed; thus, it was suitable to conduct the parametric test like correlation analysis.

According to the results of the analysis, the highest number of the participants were female with 55.33%.  The highest number of participants in the study were pursuing a Master’s Degree, followed by those doing Bachelor’s Degree, Doctorate Degree, and Ph.D. in that order. The study also identified that all the respondents, whilst in the International Universities, used the internet to access news from their nations like Vatan, Sabah, Hurriyet, Milliyetare, and NTV for Turkey, BBC online news, and Al Jazeera. Where 37.33% said that they watch the news every day, 29.33% said they watch news almost every day, 17.33% said they watch more than three times per week, 9.33% watch less than three times per week, while 6.67% watch the news ones per week.

Descriptive analysis showed that there was a significant association between British news and society’s perspective on Muslims. Most of the respondents agreed that Muslims are associated with Backwardness, terrorism, and conservativeness. This was mainly contributed by British media. All the mean values were above 2.5 (the median of 5-points Likert frame). Therefore, there is a significant society’s perception of Islamophobia, as a result of British media narratives.

The correlation analysis showed that there was a significant association between the perceptions of the participants and knowledge about British media Influence on society’s perceptions of Islamophobia and Gender, Country of origin, Years of study, and the number of times watched news per week.  The association between the British media Influence on society’s perceptions of Islamophobia and Gender was negative. The Pearson correlation value between British media Influence on society’s perceptions of Islamophobia and Country of origin was positive, which indicated that there is a positive relationship between the British media and society’s perception of Islamophobia based on the origin of the respondent. The person correlation value between the British media Influence on society’s perceptions of Islamophobia and the years of study was positive. This shows that as the student continues to live in international schools, they get more exposure to physical and verbal discrimination of Muslims by society. Lastly, the Pearson correlation value between the British media Influences society’s perceptions of Islamophobia and the number of times the respondents watched the news was positive. This shows that as the students who watched news have more experience and knowledge about British media Influence on society’s perceptions of Islamophobia, where the largest number agreed that British media contribute to Islamophobism.

4. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

4.1 Introduction

This section shows the conclusion made from the results of the study and various recommendations practices and policymaking. The limitation of the study was also included ion this chapter.

4.2 Conclusion

The results of the findings revealed that international Muslim University students perceived the British media negatively to represent Islam. Islam was associated with Backwardness, terrorism, and conservativeness.  Based on the above literature review, the study supported that the report by European Commission against Intolerance and Racism, which stated that care should be taken on how media takes Islam so that intolerance and bigotry are not encouraged.

Media is the primary factor that differentiates general racism and Islamophobia (Meuleman et al., 2019). Therefore, it is not in surprise that the media perception of Muslims is fueled by the notion of cultural differences. International Muslim students are faced with cultural issues that largely come from the media’s coverage of Muslims. Generally, painting and pictures showing cultural differences in the British media are more threatening Muslims who are in opposition side of western cultures (Byng, 2010). The study revealed that the origin of the participant highly influences their responses. The literature review showed that Muslim work is not homogeneous; that is, there are some countries like South Korea which are said to be the hot spot of terrorism, which is evident from the students’ responses.

4.3 Recommendations

The study recommended a future study to investigate various factors that contribute to media islamophobia. It also recommended future research on the same topic, including the larger sample size, which will include not only university students but also the other students to collect their views about media and Islamophobia.

Moreover, there was a need for British media organizations to be extra vigilant and careful when reporting terrorism and Islam. The researcher recommended for future study, which will involve the cross-sectional descriptive study. This study will enable the researcher to take people’s perceptions of om Media and Islamophobia depending on the seasons. During a crisis, people’s perceptions of Islam and Muslims are expected to be different from perceptions during the period of political stability. Lastly, the study recommended for the British Media to focus on integration and removal of cultural differences between western and Muslim cultures.  

4.4 Limitations of the study

The primary limitation of this study as the quality of data used. It is difficult to conclude from the study whether the findings of the study are based on real facts or assumptions. The researcher assumed that the data collected from the participants was true and accurate. The selected variables of investigations are not all assumptions of Islam by society.

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