United Nations and Globalization
The United Nations is an intercontinental organization established for the purpose of promoting and spreading global harmony, accord and collaboration. The aforementioned organization also works for the purpose of formation and continuation of global order. The world leaders laid the foundation of the United Nations on 24 October in the year 1945 in the hope of averting the occurrence of a violent event akin to the Second World War. The foundation block of the United Nations was laid as a substitution of the fruitless League of Nations (Gareis 2012). At present, United Nations possesses one hundred and ninety three associate states under its wing. The United Nations has its headquarters situated in the neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City in America and is related to diplomatic immunity. According to popular perception, the United Nations is regarded to be the most sizeable, well-known and diplomatically formidable intercontinental establishment in the world.
The theory taken for this case study of United Nations is globalization-key actors and approaches. All the major political, business or legal establishments in the world have been highly affected by globalization and the United Nations is no exception. Globalization can be defined as an incessant process through which the territorial economies, community and philosophies are on the process of becoming solidified and confederated in an intercontinental grid of correspondence and business (Forsythe, Coate and Pease 2013). It is highly evident that the United Nations can be explained by the theory of globalization. The United Nations is a bright example of how globalization can make an organization massively influential and weighty.
The United Nations is playing a major role in the global social and economic progression. Examples are abounding to support the above statement. The UN had made extensive contributions to impede hazardous diseases such as AIDS, chicken pox, malaria and others. The UN also plays a substantial role in the promotion of women emancipation, education and gender impartiality (Rasche, Waddock and McIntosh 2013). The UN also assists financially deficit countries to obtain optimum resources to combat grave national complications. The United Nations has played a major role in the amplification of comprehensive inter dependence among the different countries of the world.
Conclusively, it can be said that the United Nations is a global organization, which has incessantly worked for human welfare and prosperity. However, there are certain discrepancies in the working style and structure of the United Nations. Such discrepancies can make a fine topic of discussion among the political science enthusiasts. One of the major challenging questions, which arise at the time of discussing the concept of United Nations from the perspective of globalization, is that- The United Nations must enlarge its membership seats in the Security Council to effectively accommodate the participation of more countries in the world.
References
Forsythe, D.P., Coate, R.A. and Pease, K.K., 2013. The United Nations and changing world politics. Westview Press.
Rasche, A., Waddock, S. and McIntosh, M., 2013. The United Nations global compact: Retrospect and prospect. Business & Society, 52(1), pp.6-30.
Gareis, S.B., 2012. The united nations. Palgrave Macmillan.
Marxism and Climate Change
The term Climate Change can be defined as a long-term alteration in the regular weather cycle of the environment. The factor that is distinctive of Climate change is that it stays for a prolonged period of time. The elements that instigate the occurrence of climate change are changes in the level of radiation emitted from the sun, biological processes, extrusive eruptions, geomorphology and others (Shine 2014). On the other hand, Marxism constitutes an important part of the subject of political science and international relations. The theory of Marxism is a study of the financial and communal system, which is based upon the socio-economic teachings of the famous German political exponents Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. The theory of Marxism was emanated in the later period of the nineteenth century. Since its inception, the theory of Marxism has been incorporated into various subsections and departments of beliefs (Pashukanis 2017). As a result, at present, Marxism lacks identification to a particular standard of ideology. The utilitarian aspect of the above theory has influenced academicians to adopt specific features from the theory of Marxism and implement them in the subjects of geography, history, philosophy, human science, film studies and others. Specifically, the branch of environmental science has been closely monitoring the alterations in the environmental cycle on the perspective of the teachings of Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels (Berlin 2013). This essay outlines the fact to discuss the issue of climate change from the theoretical perspective of Marxism.
According to the scientists and the meteorology researchers, the term climate change has become synonymous with global warming. In the previous years, all forms of media including the television, the radio and the print were filled with news about the drastic change occurring in the climactic cycle due to the adverse impact of global warming. The movie, An Inconvenient Truth, produced by the eminent political diplomat of American origin-Al Gore, has portrayed the lingering issue of climate change, brilliantly and saliently (Guggenheim 2013). The movie was viewed by millions all over the world and swept away many prizes in that year. Additionally, it can be said that the movie brought the dreading issue of climate change to the forefront and had effectively put pressure on many staunch political leaders to take deliberate action against it. The most notable example in this aspect will be the case of the former President of America- Mr. George Walker Bush. Mr. Bush was reputedly known as an anti-right-winger in the posh political circles of the world (Greene 2015). However, he was also coerced to admit that the matters of climate change or disruption should be taken on a more serious note. Surprisingly, these things are now a matter of the past. After the emergence of the global financial catastrophe in the year 2008, nothing spectacular has made to the top headlines of the editorial publications sans saturnine economical predictions, malicious gossips about the celebrity figures and reviews of military aggression in the Arab world (Farmer 2012). News about climate change and natural issues has lost their relevance even in the most non-conservative print materials, such as the Independent or the Guardian (Lott and Hassett 2014). It might seem to the common public eye that the atmospheric predicaments that had been tormenting the sustainability balance of the earth had been successfully mitigated. Combining with this, there has been a rise of certain climactic disbelievers, who has taken upon the task of beguiling people by attempting constant criticism of the phenomenon of climate change in general and global warming in particular. They make dubious claims stating that global warming has no real foundations and is utter gibberish. Some even claim that it is an act of subterfuge planned by the powerful terrorist factions (Nordhaus 2012). Until now, the issue of climate change had been strongly related to the conservative section of politics but at present, a new change is becoming increasingly noticeable. The leftists have also started to endorse the fact that global warming is a concocted fact presented by the government in order to amass huge sums of money by inflating the taxation rate system. Expectedly, this would also hit the living standard level of the nations. It can be supposed that this is a sarcastic riposte to those personalities who have gone overboard with the façade movement of going green. The individuals who endorse the green movement, also speaks of making a dreamy recurrence to the imaginary pre-industrial propitious epoch. Despite all such misgivings, the fact cannot be ignored that the episode of global warming is very real and solid and if ignored, it could result in draconian loss of human life and habitat. The effects of climate change, including, global warming has been felt by millions across the world. The calamitous eventualities of hurricanes, tsunamis, floods and other such natural disasters, in the present time, can attest to this fact (Akerlof et al. 2013). In addition to this, the facts of science can clear any arising misconceptions. If one goes through the scientific records, one can see that the atmospheric temperature of the initial seven years of the twenty first century had been the record highest. It can be cited to be one of the highest of any period of millennium. The situation had turned out to be graver because of the acceleration of the thawing process in the Arctic continent, which shockingly signifies that the temperature can indeed warm up to a whopping six-degree (Fyfe, Gillett and Zwiers 2013). Such a high atmospheric temperature would become a normal occurrence at that time in the future and would not garner any extra attention.
The disadvantaged sections of the society, in particular and the third world developing countries of the world, in general, would have to face the wrath of the nature, at large. The distressed people would experience acute shortage of food, clean water and productive topsoil. They will severely fail to sustain themselves in this harsh world. Combining with this, the weather would also be in an incessant foul mood, adding to the misery of the people. It is widely acknowledged that the refined section of the society would always have the opportunity and the means to migrate to finer lands where the conditions will not be so unfavorable (Wheeler and Von Braun 2013). This fact is going to undergo a change in the future as the effect of the climate change is going to spread to the so-called first world countries of the world as well. One compelling fact, which can be noted here, is that the issue of climate change is not a technological or scientific matter but rather a class affair. If one dwells profoundly upon the background and the after-effects of climate change, one can lucidly see that it comparatively affects the penurious and the underprivileged, more.
Climate change as like all other biotic phenomenons occurs as a part of a complex chain instead in segregation. There are several steps in the chain and with each step, the situation starts to worsen and ultimately it transcends to a focal point. At this focal point, an inevitable radical alteration occurs in the earth’s climactic chain, spelling disaster (Foster 2015). To make it slightly intelligible, it can be said that it is a process of conversion of quantum into standard. This circumstance related to the conversion of quantum into standard is prevalent in all stratas of society and technology. Many writers, who have been visibly influenced by the theory of Marxism, have written books, where the execution of Marxist reasoning to new age science has been portrayed splendidly (Neumann 2015). The argumentative feature of climate change is a striking corroboration of the philosophy of debatable materialism, popularized by the honorable originators of scientific syndicalism, Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx. Friedrich Engels is famous for his many impressive writings. The most famous of them is his incomplete book-The Dialects of Nature. In this book, he has vividly described the reasoning behind the concept of debatable materialism. The reasoning, which he has attempted in this book, can also be used to describe the overall conceptualization of climate change, specifically through the detection of the top or surmounting points, the likes of which can be found in the variant aspects of Mother Nature and technology (Engels 2014). For instance, computer replicas anticipate that with a comprehensive rise in the world temperatures, England automatically could suffer from a drastic fall in the inversion rate. The fall would make the inversion colder than what is bearable at the present. The cause behind this eventuality is easy to understand- the Gulf brook, the stream of hot aqua jetting from the Caribbean region that aids to retain warmness in the British Isles can be rerouted due to the effect of the liquefied water originating from the Arctic region. No other corroboration can attest this fact of argumentative mutual perforation of polar contraries.
The fact is no more shocking that the Marxists who were so zealously concerned about climate change is now nowhere to be seen. The cause behind this circumstance is very easy to comprehend for the opportunists – Resolving atmospheric complications are not a bankable venture in today’s world. Even though a period of hundred years back, capitalism had displayed certain favorable features; when it genuinely took the initiative to finance in manufacturing based industries and other such rewarding industries. However, in the 21st century, the fact has accelerated to such a decrepit deterioration, where any occurrences of investment are devoured by the exploitative arenas of commerce and conjecture. Resolving atmospheric or climactic matters would necessitate funding in the fields of novel fact-finding, industrial sector and artisanship (Baer 2012). The plutocrats or the capitalists simply do not possess the capability of doing so. In the advent of the financial down spell, when there was economic prosperity, the capitalist section had failed to contribute massively to the renewable sector. The capitalists were least bothered about it. Ecological funding resembled large-scale subventions. These subventions were nothing but a transmission of wealth from the government bank to the personal revenue system. All these have scorched up in the emergence of the period of financial crisis.
The resolution, which the common political leaders have tried to apply in this aspect, is the delegation of the issue of the climactic crisis to the responsibility of the autonomous market system. The most prominent way of doing the delegation was to formulate a carbon business plan. This carbon business plan took the shape of a synthetic market, in where the nations and entrepreneurial centers were provided with a non-mandatory pollution ration. The participating nations could also barter carbon assets to other countries as well. Critics say that this initiative would instigate the companies to lessen their pollution level and barter the rest of their discharge asset to the other nations. In eventuality this would permit the entrepreneurial set ups to emit large quantity of hothouse gases in to the atmosphere. Whilst doing this, the business set-ups could also take the advantage of amassing huge profits by purchasing and bartering the entitlement of the contamination of the environment. There can be another alternative to this, which is the substitution of fossil fuels by the more environmentally conscious bio-fuels. Bio-fuels are environmentally conscious as they are derived from flora (Smith 2013). As usual, in the process of the conversion of the soil area from food yield to bio-fuel, the crop production rate would get negatively affected and the poverty-ridden section of the society would have to bear the brunt. This is because the price of the crops would rise beyond the reach of the ordinary lot.
Some people are also of the viewpoint that science can positively help to combat the issue of climate change and other similar atmospheric disasters in the form of implementing nuclear energy and transmission improvement in food crops. The Marxist ideology does not preach people to expand nuclear technology or any other innovative fissional processes. In fact, it is the sole imperative of the citizenry to decide that how they are going to implement these technological programs in their day-to-day lives (Parekh 2015). The citizenry must keep the fact in mind that the utilization of science and technology under the shelter of capitalism will only be carried out for the purpose of monetary gain rather than any social cause. Such applications can risk the well-being of the future human population. The urge to obtain huge share of revenue may lead the entrepreneurs to minimize the production costs, thereby putting the safety issue of the citizens at a weak spot. A perfect example to illustrate this point would be the major oil spillage in the region of the Gulf of Mexico in the year 2010. The accident occurred due to the negligence of the directors in ensuring a safe workplace for its employees. There were constant warnings from the controllers, the labor unions and the employees themselves about the unsafe and deplorable workplace conditions. However, the management chose not to bother and as a result, the hapless situation took place (White et al. 2012).There is another reason, which impels the capitalists to disregard the environmental sector. The notion of capitalism dictates that if a new production blueprint does not appear bankable, then it is useless to provide funds to such production centers. Due to this, there is very less benefaction of the plutocrats in the field of nuclear technology. Nevertheless, if the above plan is put to practice, nuclear technology can effectively furnish the human population with an abundant supply of electricity (Esping-Andersen 2013). This could again in turn make the electricity supply firms to run huge losses and suffer financially. Resultantly, of the above reasons, the autonomous market cannot effectively mitigate insufficiency issues.
The origination of the surmounting points puts a time factor on the Fabian transition of society so as to eradicate the menacing problem of climate change. In the previous ages, the doctrine of Marxism lucidly stated that the societal community is at a certain juncture, where there is the existence of only two options without any middle ground- Welfarism and Savagery. At present, the current environmental situation has become so toxic and petrifying that humans are left with no immediate choice other than the adoption of Welfarism or Savagery. It has become sufficiently explicit that the plutocrats and their interests they promote are not potent enough to bring a severe affirmative change in the climactic conditions of the biosphere.
At the conclusion, it can be said that to work for the welfare of the environment it is necessary to take the initiative to formulate probative plans for the society. Unfortunately, the rule of the nature states that it is not feasible to plan for something, which cannot be managed; also, it is not practicable to manage something, which cannot be possessed. This is the sole reason as to why ecological sustainability cannot be practiced even if people had the intense desire to do it because all the electricity-generating firms are owned by the capitalists with the sole intention of profit collection. Due to this, these businesses must be transferred to public possession and must also be administered classlessly. Along with this, capitalist management must also be eliminated from the domains of finance, indemnity and banks so that adequate investment can be channeled into new technological inventions and also efficiency can be attained in husbandry by extensive circumspection. Possibly then, the wealth of the society can knowingly be planned in accordance with the Marxist theory of International Relations.
References
Akerlof, K., Maibach, E.W., Fitzgerald, D., Cedeno, A.Y. and Neuman, A., 2013. Do people “personally experience” global warming, and if so how, and does it matter?. Global Environmental Change, 23(1), pp.81-91.
Baer, H.A., 2012. Global capitalism and climate change: the need for an alternative world system. Rowman Altamira.
Berlin, I., 2013. Karl Marx. Princeton University Press.
Engels, F., 2014. Dialectics of Nature (1883). There is no corresponding record for this reference.
Esping-Andersen, G., 2013. The three worlds of welfare capitalism. John Wiley & Sons.
Farmer, R.E., 2012. The stock market crash of 2008 caused the Great Recession: Theory and evidence. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 36(5), pp.693-707.
Foster, J.B., 2015. The Great Capitalist Climacteric: Marxism and” System Change Not Climate Change”. Monthly Review, 67(6), p.1.
Fyfe, J.C., Gillett, N.P. and Zwiers, F.W., 2013. Overestimated global warming over the past 20 years. Nature Climate Change, 3(9), pp.767-769.
Greene, J.R., 2015. The Presidency of George HW Bush. University Press of Kansas.
Guggenheim, D., 2013. An inconvenient truth. Paramount Classics.
Lott, J.R. and Hassett, K.A., 2014. Is newspaper coverage of economic events politically biased?. Public choice, 160(1-2), pp.65-108.
Neumann, E., 2015. The great mother: An analysis of the archetype. Princeton University Press.
Nordhaus, W.D., 2012. Why the global warming skeptics are wrong. The New York Review of Books, 59(5), pp.32-34.
Parekh, B., 2015. Marx’s Theory of Ideology (RLE Marxism)(Vol. 22). Routledge.
Pashukanis, E., 2017. The general theory of law and Marxism. Routledge.
Räthzel, N. and Uzzell, D. eds., 2012. Trade unions in the Green Economy: Working for the environment. Routledge.
Shine, K.P., 2014. Climate change.
Smith, K., 2013. Biofuels, air pollution, and health: a global review. Springer Science & Business Media.
Wheeler, T. and Von Braun, J., 2013. Climate change impacts on global food security. Science, 341(6145), pp.508-513.
White, H.K., Hsing, P.Y., Cho, W., Shank, T.M., Cordes, E.E., Quattrini, A.M., Nelson, R.K., Camilli, R., Demopoulos, A.W., German, C.R. and Brooks, J.M., 2012. Impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill on a deep-water coral community in the Gulf of Mexico. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(50), pp.20303-20308.
Classical Realism
The concept of international relations has evolved over time. With this evolvement, it has led to the creation of various political theories such as Liberal Internationalism, Classical Realism, The English School, Marxism, Neoliberalism and others (Burchill et al. 2013). The foundation of the Classical Realism has been established after the sorrowful and tragic end of the Second World War. Classical Realism states the notion that the occurrence of international politics and political discord lies on the inherent features of human essence and identity. Order is regarded as the pivotal point of Classical Realism (Seifert 2013). Some proponents of Classical Realism believes that order helps in the molding of nations and by which humans can bring a positive transformation in the environment albeit in a ponderous process. The essay outlines the fact to demonstrate an explanation of a theory of international relations and to present a reflective writing in collaboration with the theory.
Assumption is said to be an occurrence, which is inevitable, bound to happen, and does not require any attestation of facts. Assumption can be related to any things, establishments or even human beings. The theory of Classical Realism is based on many valid assumptions (Brown 2012). I believe, they are-
- According to their innate nature, human beings are self-centered and possess weak ethics. They cannot liberate themselves from the immoral act that they took birth to reflect on their actions.
- The impulsive craving for power and control over any person or entity is the most universal, persistent and menacing inborn nature of human and it surpasses all other nefarious tendencies of humans.
- The prospect of wiping out the impulsive craving for power among humans can be termed as an idealistic or utopian expectation. Utopian expectation involves the belief to expect for something quintessential or consummate. In fact, the belief seems too good to be true and is not always enforceable in reality.
- The famous political scientist, Thomas Hobbes summed up global politics as a fight for power and a struggle of everyone against everyone.
- The concept of global methodology states that all nations must develop strong and effective defense system to combat any potentially dangerous aggressive action committed by any foes.
- In terms of nation-building art, defense power holds more relevance than financial power. Financial power serves only as a requirement to procure national authority, influence and class.
- The prospective confederates can assist a nation to hone its capability to protect itself. However, its allegiance and steadfastness must not be conjectured.
- The nations must never blindly delegate the duty of self-defense to intercontinental corporations and must take steps to modulate global comportment.
- The fundamental objective of every nation must be to publicize national concern and interest and to secure sufficient leverage to facilitate the objective.
- Expansion of powers will only show its results when there is a presence of equilibrium of power, expedited by effort-less alliance networks.
Many eminent political scholars have associated themselves with the theory of Classical Realism in International Relations. The propagators to the theory of Classical Realism are known as Classical Realists (Rossi and Sleat 2014). Each of the Classical Realists has left their marks upon the arena of International Relations with their big ideas.
Niccolo Machiavelli has emphasized his concept of classical realism in his brilliant book, The Prince (Machiavelli 2014). Machiavelli states that state protection can be studied as a type of power which itself can contribute to the upkeep of state authority.
Thomas Hobbes, another supporter of the classical realism theory stressed on the substantiality of order. The existence of order is paramount in the understanding of Classical Realism (Spragens Jr 2015). Order can aid humans to transform the world into a beautiful place by incessant evolvement, organization and adaption.
Hans Morgenthau, who is considered to be a latter-day Classical Realist thinker, remarkably emphasizes upon the prevalence of a global ethical code that possesses the ethical obligation to steer reasonable and rational stagecraft (Levine 2013).
Reinhold Niebuhr, the renowned American political analyst led to the formation of the movement of Christian Realism. He had played a major role in the sequences of the Second World War and had based his religious notions on Protestantism (Troy 2013). He was extremely well liked and charismatic in his native country- United States and also in the other continents.
From the above discussion of the classical realists, I can understand that the Classical Realists differed in their views and opinions within the realm of Classical Realism. Their varied viewpoints and outlooks make the study of Classical Realism fascinating and unputdownable.
Classical Realism has many striking strengths and similarly, inconspicuous weaknesses. According to me, the study of both strengths and weaknesses makes the theory of Classical Realism so arresting and contradictory. The strengths of Classical Realism are-
Classical Realism helps to provides us with a valuable perception as to why the gory and brutality has miraculously lessened since the advent of the 20th century. It states the reason to be the inherent effort of the progressive democratic nations to bring the other nations into their liberal and advanced domain. Classical Realism identifies the necessary requirement for all the theories of International Relation to be in touch with the practical world and harsh reality (Frankel 2013). Classical Realism also links specific contextual scenarios for distinct occurrences. Classical Realism advocates peace and harmony and actively dissuades human beings from committing any acts of ruination or spoliation since it strongly upholds the notion of a utopian world. The theory of Classical Realism states to us that the possible abolition of disputes and acts of destruction is not related to the financial materialism but to the development of harmonious relation and comradeship among the modern states.
The weaknesses of Classical Realism are-
I believe that Classical Realism places undue emphasis on the assertion of power and authority. The cupidity of power cannot be evaluated or certified. Therefore, it challenges the authencity of Classical Realism. It places the foundation of Classical Realism on dubious grounds. The theory of Classical Realism also tends to undermine the role of important facilitators such as the intercontinental firms and global organizations. In fact, at times, I have seen that the external issues surrounding a state, such as governmental aggression, climactic disruptions and population effects, influences the affairs of the state more significantly, than the internal circumstances (Cox 2016). However, Classical Realism fails to take note of this fact and therefore it cannot provide weighty clarifications about the recent global events. The most mentionable weakness of Classical Realism is that it gives faulty commendation of the practice of law and justice. It is not necessary, that law and justice will always act as a savior to all the problems faced by the global citizenry. There have been instances where the whole ordeal of law was altered by an influencing personality to suit his or her devious action.
After the completion of this teaching period, I can say that my perspective on international politics has definitely undergone a huge change. Previously, I used to think that the cause of violent military actions could be attributed to the existence of deficiency in the defense system or due to boundary violation or other political intricacies. Now I have restructured my understanding in the lines of the assumptive conclusions of Classical Realism. The 21st century has been terrifically marked with violent and horrible occurrences of aggression, belligerence and war mongering. Certain instances, which can be cited, are the US invasion of Iraq, the Russian annexation of the region of Crimea in Ukraine and the horrific incidents of racial cleansing in the African countries (Kaldor 2013). I have learnt that the insatiable greed of power makes the human population to commit such acts of butchering and antagonism. Humans become blinded by their pleoxonia of power to such an extent that they fail to reflect upon the possible, disheartening consequences of their actions. Undoubtedly, humans are selfish and self-centered by nature. Due to this when a person reaches to the peak of indomitable power, he or she fails to think straight and fanatically tries to establish oneself in the minds and eyes of the public, as a God-like figure. This instinctive nature can be related to the character analysis of many famous political leaders and can also serve as a valid cause behind their regrettable exploitations. The scenario of global politics is also nothing but an incessant fight for attaining maximum domination and supremacy over countries and economies, alike.
If I have to take an illustrative example to highlight my reflections on Classical Realism, nothing can be more appropriate than the Japanese aggression on the city of Pearl Harbor in America. The incident occurred on the fateful day of December 7 in the year 1941. It was the period of the Second World War (Prange, Goldstein and Dillon 2014). The whole world was deeply stupefied by this sudden and unexpected act of force and assault. America was a rising superpower at that time and the other countries would think twice to plan the destruction of such a strategic location in America. The attack committed by Japan was simply unbelievable and far-fetched. However, a follower of the theory of Classical Realism would not find it amusing because it directly correlates with the assumptions of its theoretical concept. This act of treachery by the comparatively less powerful Japan can be attributed to the notion of Classical Realism, which promotes the emergence of a utopian environment by amplifying the necessary ardor and frailties of humans and by dissuading inhumanity and ferocity. Additionally, Japan desired to attain full-fledged power to become one of the superpowers.
At the end of this discussion, I have come to the conclusion that Classical Realism is in fact a very well thought and distinguishable theory of International Relations. Classical Realism is one of the oldest theories of International Relations, dated back in the era of the Second World War. It has been subjected to intense evolution over the years. Classical Realism has been propagated by the old generation thinkers as well as by the modern political intellectuals. Like all theories, Classical Realism has its share of strengths and weaknesses. However, it is one of the influencing theories of International Relations, which helps us to reflect effectively upon the global acts of bloodshed and genocide.
References
Brown, C., 2012. The ‘practice turn’, phronesis and classical realism: Towards a phronetic international political theory?. Millennium, 40(3), pp.439-456.
Burchill, S., Linklater, A., Devetak, R., Donnelly, J., Nardin, T., Paterson, M., Reus-Smit, C. and True, J., 2013. Theories of international relations. Palgrave Macmillan.
Cox, R.W. ed., 2016. The new realism: Perspectives on multilateralism and world order. Springer.
Frankel, B. ed., 2013. Realism: Restatements and Renewal. Routledge.
Kaldor, M., 2013. New and old wars: Organised violence in a global era. John Wiley & Sons.
Levine, D.J., 2013. Why Hans Morgenthau was not a critical theorist (and why contemporary IR realists should care). International Relations, 27(1), pp.95-118.
Machiavelli, N., 2014. The prince and other writings.
McKeogh, C., 2016. The political realism of Reinhold Niebuhr: a pragmatic approach to just war. Springer.
Pouliot, V. and Mérand, F., 2013. Bourdieu’s concepts. Bourdieu in International Relations: Rethinking Key Concepts in IR, pp.24-44.
Prange, G., Goldstein, D.M. and Dillon, K.V., 2014. December 7, 1941: the day the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. Open Road Media.
Rossi, E. and Sleat, M., 2014. Realism in normative political theory. Philosophy Compass, 9(10), pp.689-701.
Seifert, J., 2013. Back to’things in themselves’: A phenomenological foundation for classical realism. Routledge.
Spragens Jr, T.A., 2015. The politics of motion: The world of Thomas Hobbes. University Press of Kentucky.
Troy, J. ed., 2013. Religion and the realist tradition: from political theology to international relations theory and back. Routledge.
