Introduction
Generally science and particularly physics has been constantly seeking pattern. Imagine stretching a spring twice as far and feeling the resistance twice. This is a pattern! Try and increase the volume occupied by the object while at the same time ensuring that the mass is kept constant, it is likely to float higher in water. This is another pattern! I tend to believe that it is through carful observation of such patterns that the researcher can potentially uncover the physical laws but later expressed in the mathematical equation as a language. Look at what Newton did by just being observant on the physical factors. Newton’s law application within the sector of mathematics in the year 1846 for the planet of Uranus showed that there is a body orbiting alongside other planets and this concept gave astronomers the knowledge of discovering the new planet Neptune. The astronomers got access to the sky through the use of telescopes of high quality. The findings of Higgs boson which has been approved by other theories had a similar approach of performance. The outcome of the most common theory in physics known as Standard Model is a sector of mathematics responsible for determining specific mass of a particle. There should therefore an existence of equivalent particle formed under the concept of wave formations in the field. Combinational smashing of the particles under Higgs occurs at relatively high energies to ensure production of ripples. The process is capable of increasing levels of energy to trillions of electron-volts to lower the speed of protons below light speed. Just as in the case of Neptune invention under telescopic work, the process only appeared to be easy after proposal of Higgs which recommended establishment of Large Hadron Collider which could easily be observed by individuals.
My interest in physics drives me to a temporary conclusion that modelling of the behaviour of particles while using equations from the quantum physics must have been encountered with puzzles. If one imagines particles to be massless, then each of the equation’s term will definitely click to a pattern which is symmetrically perfect-comparatively the tip of a snowflake. Definitely, this kind of the symmetry will not be elegant mathematically. The puzzle however comes when reality is considered that particles are indeed having mass. Modification of the quantum equations to account for this fact results into the spoiled mathematical harmony. Such equations become unwieldy, complex and inconsistent. In this work, Higgs tend to be grateful for the work performed by the theory. According to Higgs, the mathematical effectiveness of the Standard Model was only on being in possession of the most crucial section despite of the mess provided by the physicists. A comprehensive research was therefore employed to assist in obtaining the right solution to the problem and towards the end of 2012 astronomers identified an object similar to Higgs particle and the original particle became an expectation of scientists in the surrounding region of the energies. A section of this research paper outlines the performed scientific procedure right from introduction to methodology. The section that closely proceeds provides a discussion regarding why scientists believe in the presence of Higgs or something similar to it. In other sections of this writing, the paper provides discussion on major projects, and failure within the Superconducting Supercollider to some extent eliminated the courage of the potential existence of an effective collider with the ability to determine Higgs. The void created was however filled by the Large Hadron Collider.
The search for Higgs is taken to be the most important concept for getting to know more regarding the current world in which we stay. Other than encountering the new planet Neptune, search for Higgs also stands in a position to answer questions such as: what is the actual meaning of “mass”? What does it count for an object to have a mass? The answers provided by the search to the questions are not direct but however it offers more knowledge for asking appropriate questions. This sets a better framework for the proposed project work.
Research Gap
Although researchers have simply mentioned suspiciously the ideas on the occurrence of matter in relation to Higgs Boson, I find it fascinating and exciting to discuss and do more research on its existence as part of contribution to this particular field of the study. For the past years particle scientists have made attempts to establish a sophisticated theoretical model referred to as the Standard Model that forms a basic foundation for present understanding of naturally occurring forces and elementary particles in place. The factor that adds taste to the model is a hypothetical, ubiquitous quantum field that allocates mass to the particles (this will help provide solution to the question stating – what is the essence of particles having mass, or what is the reason for the particle having mass). The field is termed to be Higgs field. Based on the dualism concept of wave particle, it is regarded that there is an elementary particle within every quantum field that related with them. The particle that relate to the field of Higgs is referred to as Higgs boson. “Based on the fact that Higgs field will be accountable for the mass, the reality that the elementary constituents of matter are of given masses offers a point of support to scientists on existence of Higgs field. It is possible that we assume all the data we have on particle physics data and conduct interpretation based on the mass of a hypothetical Higgs boson. Alternatively, making an assumption on the existence of Higgs Boson, the mass it has can be deduced on the basis of impact it applies to the behavior of other fields as well as particles. The proof on existence of Higgs boson cannot strongly be stood by. The most essential set objective of particle physics as a field of science is to provide a clear proof for either non-existence or existence of Higgs boson.”
Most of the current research based on fundamental particle physics mainly pays attention to the search of a particle by the name Higgs boson. The particle is regarded to be the only missing key for the current understanding of Standard Model, stated as laws of nature. The description provided by this model is for three different forces including electromagnetic interactions which is responsible for all behaviors within the magnetic and electric fields as well as spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, weak nuclear force controlling beta decay – nuclear radioactivity type and hydrogen fusion which is the source of energy from the sun and strong interactions binding the atomic nuclei together. (The description provided by the Standard Model does not include the fourth force known as gravity. The commonly known force that we encounter in our daily operations is the force of electromagnetism. Up to the recent periods, electromagnetism was the only force understood by human beings. From the periods of 1970, scholars started to develop equal understanding for the weak and strong forces as well. Few years ago, the experiments involving particle physics of high energy conducted within the CERN laboratory of Europe around Geneva, and at Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC), precision tests have been conducted by scientists on the Standard Model. It is observed to have the ability to completely describe the natural world down to size scale of atomic nucleus within the range of one thousand. “Interconnections within the particles of Higgs is by weak forces. The interaction within particles described by electromagnetism as a force is for the basic units of electromagnetic filed referred to as the protons. In fact, the current theory for interactions of weak forces defines the interaction of W and Z particles with the neutrinos, quarks, electrons among others. In most of the aspects, such particles are observed to bear properties similar to those of the proton. However, they are also of distinct features. The particle known as proton is most likely of no mass. Experimentally, the mass of proton is hardly above the thousand-billion-billion-billionth (10 -30) that of electron, and the theoretical belief is that the particle is of zero mass. The masses of W and Z particles are however great and are above 80 time those of the proton, an element constituting the atomic nucleus.
The large amount of mass for the W and Z particles is considered a puzzle. There is however inconsistency in the theory in case an individual assumes that the interaction of W and Z particles is with common fundamental constituents of matter and are of great masses. (For instance, it would be suggested by a Standard Model that the collision within a pair of particles generate high level of energy compared to a single particle, which according to physics id not possible.) Solution to this challenge calls for incorporation of other particles. Most of the simple models with the ability to describe the mass of W and Z particles only consist of a single particle, the Higgs boson. Other recommendations have been laid of which most of them are exotic. Representatively, a lot of Higgs bosons are in existence, which are completely of new types of strong interactions and a potentially new elementary physical symmetry referred to as super-symmetry. “In case Higgs boson of relatively low mass compared to mass of the Z particle is available, its discovery by scientists will take a period of two years at the large accelerators in Geneva commonly referred to as the Large Electron Positron collider (LEP). The Large Electron Positron collider ferries the electrons alongside positrons (the corresponding antimatter twins) to extremely high energies, and facilitate collision between the particles. In case Higgs bosons are of great masses, they may prove difficult to be discovered. In general, Higgs boson is considered to be an essential component to bring our present understanding of standard model to completion, theoretical edifice of particle physics. Wide range existence of Higgs boson may subject us into the emerging spheres of physics past the Standard Model.”
Our mistake is not that we take our theories too seriously, but we do not take them seriously enough. The major problem within the current sector of physics particle is – understanding the factor contributing to distinction between the weak and electromagnetism forces of interaction controlling radioactivity and energy generated by the sun. The elementary interactions within particles as discussed above are symmetric in nature. “The most essential goal currently achieved by modern physics is the quantum field theory whereby the interactions triggered by electromagnetic and weak forces are considered to be generated by a common symmetry. Validation of the ‘electroweak theory’ has been extensively provided, mostly by experiments at CERN within the LEP collider. Despite of the linkage of both electromagnetic and weak interactions through symmetry, they differently manifest in the current world. The scope of influence instigated by electromagnetism tends to be infinite, while on the other hand, weak interactions pose effects which are limited within the sub-nuclear dimensions, and occurs within the range of 10 cm. this difference is attributed to by the fact that electromagnetism force carrier known as the photon is completely of no mass, while the mass of W and Z particles consisting of the weak forces is 100 times that of the proton.
The puzzle of Symmetry
What makes the symmetry for the interactions between electromagnetism and weak forces such hidden? The experiments conducted at CERN involving the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) should aim at providing solution to this question. Assigning of LHC in the year 2005 was expected to facilitate the study of collisions for the quarks of energies ranging in the order of a trillion (1012) electron volts or 1 TeV. A vigorous analysis on the scale of 1-TeV was expected to be in the right position of determining the hidden aspect of electroweak symmetry and gives the better understanding for the massive nature of W and Z particles. Based on this aspect, neutral particles are accounted for the characteristics mass of zero spin referred to as the Higgs boson. For the case of current electroweak theory version, the mass of W and Z particles together with the elementary particles – leptons and quarks is as a result of interaction with the Higgs boson. Higgs boson on the other hand has remained hypothetical, that is, its nature is not known. Thus, particle scientists recommends the use of search for Higgs boson as a temporary tool of campaign to understand the factors contributing to the hiding aspect of electroweak symmetry and provides mass to other particles. “In case Higgs boson turns out to be the answer, a lot can be stated regarding its features to provide guide to the search. Unluckily, the electroweak theory is not capable of predicting the associated mass of Higgs boson, though, considering the arguments persistently posed by individuals, the mass of Higgs boson should be below 1TeV. Results from the previously conducted experiments indicates that the weight of Higgs boson should be approximately above 60 billion electron volts (GeV) which is equivalent to 0.06 TeV. “ in case the Higgs boson is so light, it can readily be observed within the electron-positron annihilations at LEP, generated on interaction with the particles of Z. the decaying process of Higgs boson would lead it to b antiquark and b quark. Fermi-lab’s Tevatron experiments after a period of time should be in a place to include searches for large masses, trying to identify the particles of Higgs plus W and Higgs plus Z generated by the interactions of antiprotons and protons. In case mass of the Higgs is above 130 GeV, we will subject our faith upon LHC. Electron-positron colliders involving high energies or even muon colliders can as well play vital responsibility.
“Being that we are not capable of predicting the mass of Higgs boson is the reason as to why most of us put trust that the information provided is not enough regarding Higgs boson. We have therefore extended our research process to incorporate electroweak theory to make the search more predictive and consistent. A pair of the proposed aspects indicates high level of capability. For the two versions, it is indicated that it will be possible to allocate rich harvest of both new phenomena and particles at extreme levels of energy which we have started to explore at CERN and Fermi-lab. A given approach involves the ideal of combined electroweak theory referred to as supersymmetry, which combine new constituents of matter with the common leptons, force particles and quarks. Supersymmetry consists of various Higgs bosons, and the other one relying within the scheme of energy which is under current survey by LEP. For the second approach, defined as dynamical symmetry breaking, Higgs boson is a composite rather than elementary particle, and the properties may be computed on understanding the interactions as well as elements that it contains. “For the coming 15 years, we must be in a place to start developing valid understanding regarding the origin of mass for the particles. This will focus not only on the arcana of accelerator experiments but also on the entire objects within our surrounding: the aspect of mass is responsible for determining variety of forces and provides scale for all the objects surrounding us. “In the year 1993, a challenge was posed to particle scientists by a British scholar Minister William Waldegrave to provide one page explanation what they term to be Higgs boson and the reason why they appear to be more serious on its discovery. The award given to authors by the British scholar was bottles of champagne for the five winning entries at the British Association annual meeting with the aim of enhancing the research work. The set range for the prizewinning papers is from serious to whimsical. In the same year, the papers were found within issues of Physics World, the publication of British Institute of Physics on monthly basis, and can as well be found online.
Higgs boson is defined to be a standard model of elementary collisions: the most popular theory that provide description on the elementary constituents of matter together with forces necessary for the interactions observed within the constituents of matter. By making reference to the Standard Model, matter constitutes of quarks as well as leptons subjected to collision under forces such as electromagnetic, strong, weak and gravitational forces. However, the model is regarded incomplete if it doesn’t contain the concept of Higgs boson responsible for mathematical consistency to widen the range of application of the model above the currently available particle accelerators. The suggestion made is that Higgs boson is capable of showing masses of elementary particles. The availability of Higgs Boson should approve cogency in monopoles of the magnet. Existence of the monopoles is not valid since magnetic poles persist on division into pairs. Monopoles are usually created through sweeping the magnetic field lines under the Higgs “rug”. Illustrations of the Feynman Diagrams provide explanations which assist in understanding the discussed electroweak theory of Higgs boson. The procedures outlined by Feynman Drawings are mathematical and assist in the verification of the ability posed by a particle to detach from one another.
The arrival of physics outside the standard model
Possible modifications are necessary within the Standard Model to solve the arising phenomenal mysteries which the current standard model has found difficult to explain. The standard model provides particles with detailed information regarding the collected data of physicists as well as the presented world apart from the force of gravity. Force carriers: the commonly known elementary forces described by the standard model include electromagnetic force, strong and weak forces. The above stated forces are combined under force particles: photons, W&Z bosons and gluons for the forces of electromagnetism, weak and strong forces in that order of appearance There exists a distinct pair of mass mysteries: i) mass origin and ii) justification for the unique quantities of mass for distinct objects of elementary particles. For the case of the standard model, mass of the particles constituting matter changes with great values and this change is linked to the collision of the particles discussed by the Higgs theory.
Most of us have shown deliberate attempt in scaling down the concept of symmetry and the unified theory has proven to be beyond our fingerprints. In case the bare truth is that nature is super-symmetric, super-symmetry must thus be a (broken symmetry), meaning; partial theory symmetry or an estimated factual symmetry. Provided that nature is of symmetric aspect, the mass of electrons as well as selectrons would have been similar attached to protons by the electromagnetic force. The theory of symmetric conservation states that the particles of super symmetry are generated in pairs and the products undergo decay to leave a component of odd number particle. The generation of symmetric particles is under the operation of particle accelerators referred to as the electron-positron colliders. According to the diagram of Feynman, the particles collide to produce selectrons of both negative and positive charges. The selectrons of positive charges decay further to produce positron and photino, while the selectrons of negative charges undergo further decay to produce electrons and photino as the final products. The product of decay from the negatively and positively charged selectrons referred to as the photino cannot be detected and this creates a void on symmetry of energy. This factor at the same time contributes to momentum loss and this momentum of photinos vector sum is responsible for determining the direction of motion. The contradicting statements does not however make nature non-super symmetric, but declares that there are no electrons generated by electron-positron colliders which are of less weight compared to their maximum energy. Analysis conducted for the experimental data shows the existence of fundamental particles like gluons and quarks of high masses in the range of 70 billion eV as represented below by the region under curve
While I may not confirm with a lot of authority or certainty, Low Energy Identification Mechanisms for the Phenomena of High Energy could potentially explain or give an interesting concept. The standard model outlines that quarks are of different colors and the quarks together with leptons found within a single column are assumed to belong to the same family. Antileptons as well as antiquarks are also in place and comprise of charges inverse to those contained by their parental elements. Color is another quark quantum value which has not been presented by the standard model. The total number of gluons is eight and each and every one of them is of separate color quantum unification. The summary regarding decay process of Z0 particle is provided by Aleph detector at CERN. The major role played by the particle is distribution within the quark particles the weak force contributing to relatively low strength neutral current. The particle then undergoes rapturing process to produce quark and antiquark which spread further to more stable constituents of matter such as the mesons. The upper limit of kaons indicates a relentless reduction in functional decay to pion and involves emission of neutrino together with antineutrino for the last 3 decades. The inconsistency of flavor-changing decay consisting of changes to down quark from strange quark led to the discovery of charm quark posing a lot of challenges to the standardized enhancement of the standard model
According to the theory of Technicolor, Higgs particles are categorized into two major groups of particles of high masses. The postulation assists Higgs technique to allocate appropriate masses to the W and Z particles to ensure that the resultant structure is more stable. Technicolor group particles are of great masses ranging within the order of trillion electron volts (TeV). The associated FCNCs generated by the particles are as well observed to be large, a characteristic which is quite unique within the present conditions. The decay process cannot easily be determined under experimental methods. This for instance is as a result of inability of the detector to detect or indicate the presence of neutrino. The comprehensive search has however posed negative influence on performance of the standard model. The process of decay exhibited by the bottom quarks under FCNCs takes distinct approaches. In some processes, the bottom quarks decay into unique quark and the process involves emission of a unique substance thought to be super symmetrical particle or maybe an exotic Higgs. The resulting constituent decays further to generate lepton and anulepton. For the case of Penguin decay, the collider process generates a pair of B bosons. A given pair of the resulting constituent endured conventional decay to generate the dark patch photon, the negative pion which is purple and the green color element of positive kaon. The other pair of the resulting collider constituent endured flavor-changing neutral decay and resulted into other particles like the negative pion which is pink in color, a patch photon, two positive pions and a blue negatively charged kaon. The decay process through change in color as indicated by the standard model defines the non-existence of exotic particle.
What about the contribution collider with higher quality? A compressive error of physics will surface to widen the scope of investigation for the sub-atomic particles as well as the odd energy scales of Large Hadron Collider (LHC). Though, even before the scholars could instigate the first collision at such high energies in the enormous regid ring of LHC, a lot of research was in place to achieve a massive particle accelerator. The consensus choice made by the family particles of physics rested upon the International Linear Collider (ILC). The length of the equipment was above 30km and it had the ability to disintegrate at higher velocities both electrons and positrons than the speed by which light moves The ILC model provided assist to physicists to implement close monitoring techniques to the uniquely emerging LHC. The role of LHC was to determine collisions of protons including the defined quarks of gluons. Considering the fact that the constituents of proton that is, quarks and gluons are in constant collision, proton-proton interaction aspect was not of low interest. The emitted energy from the collision of quarks has proved difficult to be determined by physicists, making evaluation process for the involved behaviors of elementary collision constituents of matter very complex. Electron-positron collider was mainly applied by scientists to generate accurate amounts for the emitted energy from a single collision made by the quark. In consideration to that, ILC emerged as the most essential tool to provide accurate evaluation for the mass alongside other characteristics of the hidden particles. Its existence is traced back to the period when the most ancient collider was designed and was known to be Large Electron-Positron (LEP) collider, which in the storage ring enhanced the ability of electrons as well as positrons to disintegrate the constituents of matter leading to high energies collisions.
The cost of the collider was highly unaffordable due to the large circumferential ring accelerating the process of collisions between the particles. The concept was succeeded by LHC which was substituted after some periods as a result of numerous challenges encountered by the model. ILC enables the positrons and electrons to collide and the collision is accompanied by production of energy in large amounts of 500 GeV. Through, regardless of the numerous advantages posed by ILC, there are some limitations that it consists of and these include; the collider damping rings were to be of high quality as the beam, often than not compared to the electrons storage rings in place. The other difficulty experienced was in the establishment of detectors within ILC capable of analyzing interactions within the particles. Within the action that significantly amazed and depressed various physicists, the leading world class laboratory resigned from performing experiments reflecting all the potential indications of achieving the maximum idea of discovering subtle particles anticipated to station the capstone on a century of particle physics. The resigned out of the experiment was considered the last option LEP had within the field of discovery for particle physics. Higgs play a very important role within the recent world consisting of the particle physics. Currently, the term Higgs has widely spread across the world allocating mass to the recently disclosed constituents of matter. However, proofs from the science sector indicated that the strength of Higgs was not intense for suspending LHC without extended discoveries of the LEP collider. The discovery under Higgs consisted of numerous data search and only gives preferentiality to super-symmetry in the order of 130 GeV and below, and for the ener4gy above that range, it is assumed to be a different thing other than super-symmetry. Particles colliding at relatively high speeds are accompanied by creation of energy in large amounts. Regardless of the connection of LHC to the tunnel, the expectations remained that it had to achieve such extreme energies. The tunnel consisted of LEP for the CERN to ensure that the tests performed within the tunnel for particle physics are accurate. The anticipation regarding the collider was that it disintegrate protons of relatively high densities to facilitate interaction between gluons and quarks which involves high energies emissions
As a theoretical physicist myself, one of many dedicated to finding what Einstein called the “unified theory”—the deeply hidden connections between all of nature’s forces and matter that Einstein dreamed of, long after being hooked on physics by the mysterious workings of the compass—the discovery of the Higgs is especially gratifying. For the entire period of history, Discovery Automaton is assumed to be the most functional microscope ever. Self-presentation of LHC could only be within short-distant physics and consist of energy generation in large volumes. The largest automaton was fitted to produce beams of particles. The basic LHC parameter tends to outdo other parameters posed by the traditional colliders in every aspect. “Higgs” remained to be the only answer any scientist could give to the reason of the LHC construction process underway. Based on the observation made, the standard model has upset the statement of Louis the scientist: instead of “form succeeds function”. This means that the presented theory forms of symmetry of equations explaining the form, outlines the function to be collision of the particles as per the explanation given by the theory. The particles under collision are considered to be of distinct versions of mirror-image: right- and left-handed with the last being the only particle encountering beta decay forces. Regardless of lawfully being symmetrical, the behavior posed by electromagnetism for the superconducting substance still remains to be non-symmetrical. The standard model emerged to be the most essential tool in the sector of particle physics in the year 1970s. Based on the Higgs theories, the tool was designed with the aim of providing elaborate discussion for the collision of the fundamental matter constituents making the universe.
Summary
In summary, I am in agreement with different approaches to solve the pecking order challenges of the arising phenomena of Higgs Boson. If nature could hold to be super-symmetric, distinct matter constituents would have been of similar masses and the influence of each would outdo each other. Technicolor on the other hand presents a fictional nature of elementary matter constituents different from Higgs boson. The physics particle of the standard model referred to as the Higgs particle has become very common and the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory has given the actual application field for Higgs. Higgs boson is considered apparent to relative masses of W and Z bosons and its elimination would complicate further the process of proving the actual nature of the universe. Physicists employed a more comprehensive search to confirm if truly super-particles exist, however this resulted into failure. If truly they exist, they must be of great masses. The process of data collection is underway by ATLAS and CMS, and is alleged to disclose existence of super-particles. Super-symmetry can however not completely be dismissed, if there is failure by the collider to discover its existence, the theory may be regarded to be non-functional. It is interesting to note that not even the world under gravity has been spared by this new invention. I consider the discovery of the Higgs particle is an astonishing triumph of mathematics’ power which can potentially be used in the revelation of the manner in which universe is working and perhaps this is the most important thing.
