THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
CONCEPTS OF LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
Leadership and management are complementary to each other. Both combine together to add added advantage to organizational and its level of effectiveness. The term management provides the required level of efficiency to climb the ladder of success, whereas leadership determines whether the ladder is leaning against the right wall or not. That is leadership is the anchor that supports better management to have enhanced organizational effectiveness (Alliance, 2012). Leadership supports people management in a more efficient manner and expectation level of the organization is improved greatly. Organizational sustainability is supported holistically by the influence leadership on management functionalities. The management practices are changing day by day and so are the leadership skills and styles. Management is the accumulation of the various organizational functions namely planning, organizing, directing, staffing, controlling, budgeting, retaining and harmonizing human resources and other resources to accomplish the set up goals. Leadership is the individualistic ability to influence and motivate others to contribute to the organizational success at large. Leadership is leading people for better work management (Council, 2011). Management comprises of strategy formulation and supports team effectiveness largely. People empowerment and valuation supports management functions through increased employee motivation by the aid of effective leadership styles. Management is related to logical thinking and rational behavioral approach but leadership supports the emotional part of the individuals. Present day organizations prefer both leaders and managers for successful operational functioning within the organization.
Leadership could be predicted in varying forms as per individualistic levels of performance. Differential opinions are being provided for interpretation of the various leadership styles. The Leadership styles are basically of three forms- transformational, consultative and participative. Transformational leaders have the ability to motivate their subordinates beyond the extent of their job descriptions and job roles (Day, Gronn and Salas, 2006). Communal changes are supported by them and they prefer pre-problem anticipation before the stipulated time period. Consultative leaders have partial and substantial trust on their followers and do not have full level of trust. The motivational tools mainly include rewards and employee participation through moderate teamwork. Participative leadership supports the fact that the leaders have full faith on their subordinates and responsibility centers are formed to support organizational goals through increased team co-operation and co-ordination.
Some set up objectives and common goals will help in supporting the essence of the leadership styles in a more extensive manner. The team effectiveness will increase manifold if the traits are in well co-ordination with the organizational aims and objectives (Draulans, DeMan and Volberda, 2003). People management will be easier if leaders have enough control over the workforce.
Leadership could be classified as per the following traits- dimensions, process and personality. Leaders have more power and influence on their subordinates and the relationship in between is extended over professional base. The emotional attachment is more enhanced and the followers have more rapport with their leaders.
KEY MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP THEORIES
Leadership has evolved from a simple concept to a much wider and complex form. The management styles and functions have also been reformed to have better work integration and effective team performance through efficient employee management (Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt and Van Engen, 2003). A number of theories and literature background has been put forward to explain the importance of leadership to people management and organizational effectiveness. The various supporting theories are tabulated below.
| Theories of leadership | Explanation |
| Trait theory | The trait theory supports both the combination of genetics and socialization. Each individual has a distinguishing set of traits and thus leadership styles vary accordingly. The people having the right combination of the traits could only make up good leaders in future. |
| Process theory | The theory includes equity theory, expectancy theory and porter-lawler theory. Equity acts as motivational factor and inequity reduces motivation. Expectancy theory supports rewards and efforts and anticipates future decision making process (Low, 2013). The porter theory suggests that an integrated approach of leadership will be more fruitful than a single theory. |
| Situational theory | The situational leadership is supported by a number of situational factors and four behavioral types influence them immensely-telling, selling, participating and delegating. |
| Contingency theory | The leadership trait is limited by the contingent factors of a number of situational factors that includes style, capabilities, behavior and other situational factors. The effectiveness and success of leaders are relative and varies from one situation to the other. |
| Path goal theory | The path goal theory supports the fact that a leader’s behavioral approach is limited to some contingencies and satisfaction levels, motivation and performance levels play crucial roles in influencing the leadership styles (Pearce and Herbik, 2004). The approach provides flexible base of the leaders and situational circumstances are supported holistically by them. Environment and characteristics of the followers will determine the leadership trait. |
| Psychodynamic theory | This approach includes unconscious motives, experiences, id, ego and super-ego. Eros and Thanatos will play important roles in determining the leadership traits. Personality is greatly influenced by the leadership traits. |
| Great man theory | This theory supports the fat that leaders are born and not made. That is leadership is an inborn quality in individuals. Great leaders will automatically emerge and cannot be made or forced to be a leader. |
| Behavioral theory | This theory totally contradicts the great man theory and supports the fact that leaders can be made rather than being born. A definable and learnable behavioral theory will help in successful development of the base of leadership. |
| Lewin ‘s theory of leadership | The psychological leadership theory provides three basic leadership styles- autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire.
Authoritarian leaders provide clear cut expectations for the work to be conducted and prefer independent decision making. The democratic leaders are the most effective ones and supports group performances which in turn increases effectiveness and performance levels holistically (Pi\~na, Mart\’\inez and Mart\’\inez, 2008). Laissez Faire is the least productive style and the management lacks co-operation and integration. Decision making is hampered as there is poor roles defined and lack of motivation. |
| Managerial grid model | Blake and Mouton’s model supports five leadership styles on the basis of people concern and production concern namely country club, team leader, impoverished and authoritative.
|
| Expectancy theory | The theory supports that individual’s act in certain ways and expected results are then compared to the actual ones. The cognitive process flow will support the desirability of the outcome and thus supports performance control. The three tools of expectancy, instrumentality and valance supports behavior and motivation.
Effort, performance and outcomes interact with each other to have enhanced motivation.
|
CHALLENEGS OF LEADERSIP AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Leadership, either inborn or acquired is likely to face certain obstacles and challenges. The effect of improper leadership has an immense toll on the management practices and the ethical background of the organization is also hampered adversely. The current day organizations face huge problems in leadership and management of performances. Frauds and unethical issues are increasing day by day and the organizational management team is held responsible for such ambiguities (Salas et al., 2007). The challenges could be both internal and external to the organization. The main challenges that could be faced by leadership are as follows,
Internal challenges- The main internal challenges include development of managerial effectiveness, inspiring others, leading a team, employee development, communication problems, supporting and guiding changes and managing internal politics and organizational stakeholders. Other challenges include insecurity, defensiveness, and lack of decisiveness, inability to be direct and objective when there is a problematic situation, impatience with situations and other employees etc are some of the factors that create problems to leadership and management (Salas et al., 2007).
External challenges- The external challenges include issues related to public issues, interpersonal issues and conflicts, economic crisis and disasters, public scams and scandals, opposition from business groups, local governmental bodies and other competitive organizations. The financial windfall will create higher level ambiguity and conflicting situations will help in enhancing the challengeous situations (Yukl, 2002). The collaboration and joint venture with other organizations will create operational contingencies and balance will be hampered holistically.
The challenges could be faced by being proactive, creative, collaborative, having 360 degree feedback, developing interactive communication and listening to every single reaction with equal determination and importance. Opportunities should be supported to have better solutions to the challenges. Management practices should follow ethical bases and should have their own code of conduct and organizational norms. Leadership could be supportive to have enhanced management practices within the organization.
IMPROVEMENT OF MOTIVATION AND PERFORMANCE LEVELS
KEY MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON ORGANIZATIONAL SUCCESS
| Motivational theories | Influence on organizational success | ||||||||||||
| Maslow’s theory of motivation | Motivation theory has five stages of need- physiological, safety, social belongingness, self-esteem needs and self-actualization needs.
In an organization the needs include the following factors.
All the needs are to be fulfilled in gradual pace of time to have better results and support organizational development holistically.
|
||||||||||||
| Herzberg’s two factor theory | Satisfaction and dissatisfaction at workplaces are not the resultants of the opposing forces and arose from varying sources. Ethical management and social responsibility are directly related to psychological factors and hygienic factors are largely responsible for motivating employees (Yukl, 2002). The table provides the various hygienic needs and motivators.
Thus the dissatisfaction level is determined by the hygienic factors and the satisfaction levels are determined by the motivators. |
||||||||||||
| Alderfer’s ERG Theory | The three needs include growth needs (competency development), relatedness (relationship building) and existence needs (physical well being). The rationality of the approach is much intense and individual existence is supported extensively. | ||||||||||||
| McClelland’s need theory | The need theory encompasses the needs acquired as the results of the experiences in one’s life. They include need for achievement (accomplishment of difficult situations), need for affiliation (personal relationships) and need for power (control). The tool of TAT (thematic appreciation test) is used to measure the effectiveness of the needs (Low, 2013). | ||||||||||||
| Adam’s equity theory | This explains the fact that reward does not motivate employees but the perception of the comparison of the inequality will motivate the employee to perform better in future. The ratio of reward to effort is being compared and motivation is supported. | ||||||||||||
| Vroom’s expectancy theory | This theory supports three main factors namely expectancy, instrumentality and valence. The motivational level is determined by the combined multiplicative effect of the three forces. Expectancy relates to resultant performances, instrumentality relates to rewards/ punishments and valence relates to the perceived strength or weakness of the previous factors. | ||||||||||||
| Goal setting theory | The goals thus set up should be SMART in nature (specific, measurable, attainable, relevant and time bound) to have better organizational effectiveness. Employee motivational level is directed in the way best suited to the organization as well as the individuals associated therewith. | ||||||||||||
| Reinforcement theory | Skinner’s operant conditioning will support behavioral patterns and includes positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment and extinction. Reinforcement could be scheduled on continuous basis or could be intermittent. A collaborative combination of rewards and stressors would influence the motivational levels holistically (Low, 2013).
|
||||||||||||
| Cognitive evaluation theory | The theory supports the presence of two systems of motivation-intrinsic and extrinsic. The intrinsic motivators include responsibility areas and competency levels. The extrinsic motivators include pay, promotion, work conditions, feedback and individualistic situations. Both supports employee motivation extensively. | ||||||||||||
| Taylorism | This theory supports wage payment as the primary source of motivation and better remuneration would enhance the level of productivity of the workers. | ||||||||||||
| Mayo’s theory | This theory contradicts Taylor’s theory and supports the fact that money alone cannot influence performances. The various social needs will increase interaction and they will impart more productivity as a result of social constructivism. |
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT IN EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION
Both leadership and management help in employee motivation to encourage them for enhanced productivity and also provide assurance and job satisfaction. The employees if satisfied with the various aspects of the job starting from the very nature of the job to the compensation policies would have better performance levels to add up to the success and sustainability of the organization (Day, Gronn and Salas, 2006). Both leadership and management could combine together to have the most effective combination of the work goals and the employee goals. The motivational factors of the employees could be easily understood and a healthy and fair work system could be developed thus reducing the conflicting situations. A well integration in between the leaders and the mangers will support better team management and employee engagement would automatically get increased. Competency levels will get increased and productivity of the organization, in turn, will get increased. Level of trust will get increased and proactiveness would get enhanced. The workplace environment would be healthier and the potentiality of the employees would get enhanced (Low, 2013). The relationship among the hierarchical positioning would be much more stabilized and the flexibility within the organization would get increased. Individual level performances get increased and they accumulate to add to the organizational level of productivity.
CONTRIBUTION OF PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
Managing the standard of performance and evaluating it with the benchmarked one is not an easy job and requires periodic review. The techniques used for performance management has evolved through times and the most commonly used techniques in recent times would include the followings- performance review meetings, setting up of performance objectives/ setting benchmarks, MBO plans, Personal Development Plans (PDPs), formation of quality circles, regular feedback considerations, preparation of confidential reports, checklist formation, development of critical incident methods, implementation of performance appraisal methods and other tools of management. The techniques would be more effective if an integrated Human Resource Management System is implemented holistically in the organization (Day, Gronn and Salas, 2006). Modern techniques like formation of assessment centers, MBO, Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS), Human Resource Accounting and role analysis would help in better evaluation of the performance levels. Once the gap is deduced it will be much easier to find the most effective solutions for better integration of the leadership styles and management functioning.
DEVELOPMENT AND EFFECTIVENESS OF TEAMS
DEVELOPEMENT OF TEAMS
Team performance imparts more effectiveness in comparison to individual performance. A well balanced team formation requires huge effort and group effectiveness is the capacity and capability of a team for better goal accomplishment in an organization. Team is generally formed by a collection of a number of individuals having varying fields of expertise. Task accomplishment opportunities are independent but their joint efforts lead to attainment of the results in amore enhanced manner. The team building approach requires group cohesiveness, group dynamics and support teamwork. Ti is found that the individual performance level is less effective than group performance (Day, Gronn and Salas, 2006). The individual could have wider performance gaps. Team efforts reduce the gap to the extent possible and support organizational success. In recent times quality circles are formed to have better team integration and information sharing options. Group interaction would increase the relationship in between the workforce members and thus conflict situations could be avoided to the extent possible. Teams are formed with some efficient expertise and some low level expertise so that their works could counterbalance each other and ultimate results could be achieved. First and foremost the team objectives need to be decided upon and they should be in compliance with the SMART acronym. Team effectiveness is dependent on a number of factors such as size of the organization, structure of the organization, composition of members, roles, norms and values and cohesiveness within the team. The characteristics of the members is to be studied that is a total SWOT analysis of each member should be done to know the actual level of performance (Salas et al., 2007). The motivational factors need to be evaluated so that the level of performance could be enhanced and performance gap could be reduced. Teams could be based on job requirements, operational outputs, and performance effectiveness. Good leaders are sound in maintaining a team and would support the flexibility within the team in the most profound manner.
ROLES AND MODELS OF TEAM LEADERSHIP
Understanding the team roles is the key to the success of a team and team performance levels. The members have clarified roles and responsibilities to perform in a team and every role add up to fulfill the ultimate objective of the organization. Team role is simply a tendency to contribute, behave and relate with others in a given manner (Salas et al., 2007). The understanding of the team roles will help in understanding the strengths and weaknesses of the team. Understanding of individual flaws and strengths will help in better team management and will provide additional balance to the team. The Belbin’s team roles could be classified into nine roles as under.
| Roles | Characteristics | ||
| Action oriented | Shaper
|
Team challenger | |
| Implementer
|
Puts theoretical ideas into real action plans | ||
| Complete finisher | Supports timely plan execution | ||
| People oriented | Coordinator | Chairperson roles | |
| Team worker | Encourages cooperation | ||
| Resource investigator | External opportunities explorer | ||
| Thought oriented | Plant | presents newer ideas and creative skills | |
| Monitor-evaluator | Option analyzer | ||
| Specialist | Specialized skill provider | ||
Team leadership could be designed in a manner that will help in adding effectiveness to the performance levels. Decision making options are supported extensively and intervention of the action plans become more enhanced. Hill’s team leadership model will help in better interpretation of team effectiveness as it provides a systematic approach to team management. The flow diagram is shown below.
USEFULNESS OF TEAMS TO ORGANIZATION
Teams help an organization by supporting effective execution of the action plans, integrating the plans, and adding up the level of ambition to have better establishment of the organizational vision and mission statements. The usefulness could be perceived in the performance levels and the team effectiveness will get enhanced. Thus an organization cannot run smoothly only by employing individual employees (Yukl, 2002). Team works do play an immense role in adding up to the organizational success and will support sustainability of the same in the long run. Without an effective team the organization will remain plagiarized and performance levels could not be achieved to the extent desired.
REFERENCES:
Alliance, A. (2012). Leadership and management.
Council, C. (2011). Leadership and Management. Cornwall Council.
Day, D., Gronn, P. and Salas, E. (2006). Leadership in team-based organizations: On the threshold of a new era. The Leadership Quarterly, 17(3), pp.211–216.
Draulans, J., DeMan, A. and Volberda, H. (2003). Building alliance capability:: Management techniques for superior alliance performance. Long Range Planning, 36(2), pp.151–166.
Eagly, A., Johannesen-Schmidt, M. and Van Engen, M. (2003). Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles: a meta-analysis comparing women and men. Psychological bulletin, 129(4), p.569.
Low, P. (2013). Leadership and Motivation. Springer, pp.37–73.
Pearce, C. and Herbik, P. (2004). Citizenship behavior at the team level of analysis: The effects of team leadership, team commitment, perceived team support, and team size. The Journal of Social Psychology, 144(3), pp.293–310.
Pi\~na, M., Mart\’\inez, A. and Mart\’\inez, L. (2008). Teams in organizations: a review on team effectiveness.Team Performance Management, 14(1/2), pp.7–21.
Salas, E., Stagl, K., Burke, C. and Goodwin, G. (2007). Fostering team effectiveness in organizations: Toward an integrative theoretical framework. 52, p.185.
Yukl, G. (2002). Leadership in organizations. Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ.
THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
CONCEPTS OF LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
Leadership and management are complementary to each other. Both combine together to add added advantage to organizational and its level of effectiveness. The term management provides the required level of efficiency to climb the ladder of success, whereas leadership determines whether the ladder is leaning against the right wall or not. That is leadership is the anchor that supports better management to have enhanced organizational effectiveness (Alliance, 2012). Leadership supports people management in a more efficient manner and expectation level of the organization is improved greatly. Organizational sustainability is supported holistically by the influence leadership on management functionalities. The management practices are changing day by day and so are the leadership skills and styles. Management is the accumulation of the various organizational functions namely planning, organizing, directing, staffing, controlling, budgeting, retaining and harmonizing human resources and other resources to accomplish the set up goals. Leadership is the individualistic ability to influence and motivate others to contribute to the organizational success at large. Leadership is leading people for better work management (Council, 2011). Management comprises of strategy formulation and supports team effectiveness largely. People empowerment and valuation supports management functions through increased employee motivation by the aid of effective leadership styles. Management is related to logical thinking and rational behavioral approach but leadership supports the emotional part of the individuals. Present day organizations prefer both leaders and managers for successful operational functioning within the organization.
Leadership could be predicted in varying forms as per individualistic levels of performance. Differential opinions are being provided for interpretation of the various leadership styles. The Leadership styles are basically of three forms- transformational, consultative and participative. Transformational leaders have the ability to motivate their subordinates beyond the extent of their job descriptions and job roles (Day, Gronn and Salas, 2006). Communal changes are supported by them and they prefer pre-problem anticipation before the stipulated time period. Consultative leaders have partial and substantial trust on their followers and do not have full level of trust. The motivational tools mainly include rewards and employee participation through moderate teamwork. Participative leadership supports the fact that the leaders have full faith on their subordinates and responsibility centers are formed to support organizational goals through increased team co-operation and co-ordination.
Some set up objectives and common goals will help in supporting the essence of the leadership styles in a more extensive manner. The team effectiveness will increase manifold if the traits are in well co-ordination with the organizational aims and objectives (Draulans, DeMan and Volberda, 2003). People management will be easier if leaders have enough control over the workforce.
Leadership could be classified as per the following traits- dimensions, process and personality. Leaders have more power and influence on their subordinates and the relationship in between is extended over professional base. The emotional attachment is more enhanced and the followers have more rapport with their leaders.
KEY MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP THEORIES
Leadership has evolved from a simple concept to a much wider and complex form. The management styles and functions have also been reformed to have better work integration and effective team performance through efficient employee management (Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt and Van Engen, 2003). A number of theories and literature background has been put forward to explain the importance of leadership to people management and organizational effectiveness. The various supporting theories are tabulated below.
|
Theories of leadership |
Explanation |
|
Trait theory |
The trait theory supports both the combination of genetics and socialization. Each individual has a distinguishing set of traits and thus leadership styles vary accordingly. The people having the right combination of the traits could only make up good leaders in future. |
|
Process theory |
The theory includes equity theory, expectancy theory and porter-lawler theory. Equity acts as motivational factor and inequity reduces motivation. Expectancy theory supports rewards and efforts and anticipates future decision making process (Low, 2013). The porter theory suggests that an integrated approach of leadership will be more fruitful than a single theory. |
|
Situational theory |
The situational leadership is supported by a number of situational factors and four behavioral types influence them immensely-telling, selling, participating and delegating. |
|
Contingency theory |
The leadership trait is limited by the contingent factors of a number of situational factors that includes style, capabilities, behavior and other situational factors. The effectiveness and success of leaders are relative and varies from one situation to the other. |
|
Path goal theory |
The path goal theory supports the fact that a leader’s behavioral approach is limited to some contingencies and satisfaction levels, motivation and performance levels play crucial roles in influencing the leadership styles (Pearce and Herbik, 2004). The approach provides flexible base of the leaders and situational circumstances are supported holistically by them. Environment and characteristics of the followers will determine the leadership trait. |
|
Psychodynamic theory |
This approach includes unconscious motives, experiences, id, ego and super-ego. Eros and Thanatos will play important roles in determining the leadership traits. Personality is greatly influenced by the leadership traits. |
|
Great man theory |
This theory supports the fat that leaders are born and not made. That is leadership is an inborn quality in individuals. Great leaders will automatically emerge and cannot be made or forced to be a leader. |
|
Behavioral theory |
This theory totally contradicts the great man theory and supports the fact that leaders can be made rather than being born. A definable and learnable behavioral theory will help in successful development of the base of leadership. |
|
Lewin ‘s theory of leadership |
The psychological leadership theory provides three basic leadership styles- autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire. Authoritarian leaders provide clear cut expectations for the work to be conducted and prefer independent decision making. The democratic leaders are the most effective ones and supports group performances which in turn increases effectiveness and performance levels holistically (Pi\~na, Mart\’\inez and Mart\’\inez, 2008). Laissez Faire is the least productive style and the management lacks co-operation and integration. Decision making is hampered as there is poor roles defined and lack of motivation. |
|
Managerial grid model |
Blake and Mouton’s model supports five leadership styles on the basis of people concern and production concern namely country club, team leader, impoverished and authoritative.
|
|
Expectancy theory |
The theory supports that individual’s act in certain ways and expected results are then compared to the actual ones. The cognitive process flow will support the desirability of the outcome and thus supports performance control. The three tools of expectancy, instrumentality and valance supports behavior and motivation. Effort, performance and outcomes interact with each other to have enhanced motivation.
|
CHALLENEGS OF LEADERSIP AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Leadership, either inborn or acquired is likely to face certain obstacles and challenges. The effect of improper leadership has an immense toll on the management practices and the ethical background of the organization is also hampered adversely. The current day organizations face huge problems in leadership and management of performances. Frauds and unethical issues are increasing day by day and the organizational management team is held responsible for such ambiguities (Salas et al., 2007). The challenges could be both internal and external to the organization. The main challenges that could be faced by leadership are as follows,
Internal challenges- The main internal challenges include development of managerial effectiveness, inspiring others, leading a team, employee development, communication problems, supporting and guiding changes and managing internal politics and organizational stakeholders. Other challenges include insecurity, defensiveness, and lack of decisiveness, inability to be direct and objective when there is a problematic situation, impatience with situations and other employees etc are some of the factors that create problems to leadership and management (Salas et al., 2007).
External challenges- The external challenges include issues related to public issues, interpersonal issues and conflicts, economic crisis and disasters, public scams and scandals, opposition from business groups, local governmental bodies and other competitive organizations. The financial windfall will create higher level ambiguity and conflicting situations will help in enhancing the challengeous situations (Yukl, 2002). The collaboration and joint venture with other organizations will create operational contingencies and balance will be hampered holistically.
The challenges could be faced by being proactive, creative, collaborative, having 360 degree feedback, developing interactive communication and listening to every single reaction with equal determination and importance. Opportunities should be supported to have better solutions to the challenges. Management practices should follow ethical bases and should have their own code of conduct and organizational norms. Leadership could be supportive to have enhanced management practices within the organization.
IMPROVEMENT OF MOTIVATION AND PERFORMANCE LEVELS
KEY MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON ORGANIZATIONAL SUCCESS
|
Motivational theories |
Influence on organizational success |
||||||||||||
|
Maslow’s theory of motivation |
Motivation theory has five stages of need- physiological, safety, social belongingness, self-esteem needs and self-actualization needs. In an organization the needs include the following factors.
All the needs are to be fulfilled in gradual pace of time to have better results and support organizational development holistically.
|
||||||||||||
|
Herzberg’s two factor theory |
Satisfaction and dissatisfaction at workplaces are not the resultants of the opposing forces and arose from varying sources. Ethical management and social responsibility are directly related to psychological factors and hygienic factors are largely responsible for motivating employees (Yukl, 2002). The table provides the various hygienic needs and motivators.
Thus the dissatisfaction level is determined by the hygienic factors and the satisfaction levels are determined by the motivators. |
||||||||||||
|
Alderfer’s ERG Theory |
The three needs include growth needs (competency development), relatedness (relationship building) and existence needs (physical well being). The rationality of the approach is much intense and individual existence is supported extensively. |
||||||||||||
|
McClelland’s need theory |
The need theory encompasses the needs acquired as the results of the experiences in one’s life. They include need for achievement (accomplishment of difficult situations), need for affiliation (personal relationships) and need for power (control). The tool of TAT (thematic appreciation test) is used to measure the effectiveness of the needs (Low, 2013). |
||||||||||||
|
Adam’s equity theory |
This explains the fact that reward does not motivate employees but the perception of the comparison of the inequality will motivate the employee to perform better in future. The ratio of reward to effort is being compared and motivation is supported. |
||||||||||||
|
Vroom’s expectancy theory |
This theory supports three main factors namely expectancy, instrumentality and valence. The motivational level is determined by the combined multiplicative effect of the three forces. Expectancy relates to resultant performances, instrumentality relates to rewards/ punishments and valence relates to the perceived strength or weakness of the previous factors. |
||||||||||||
|
Goal setting theory |
The goals thus set up should be SMART in nature (specific, measurable, attainable, relevant and time bound) to have better organizational effectiveness. Employee motivational level is directed in the way best suited to the organization as well as the individuals associated therewith. |
||||||||||||
|
Reinforcement theory |
Skinner’s operant conditioning will support behavioral patterns and includes positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment and extinction. Reinforcement could be scheduled on continuous basis or could be intermittent. A collaborative combination of rewards and stressors would influence the motivational levels holistically (Low, 2013).
|
||||||||||||
|
Cognitive evaluation theory |
The theory supports the presence of two systems of motivation-intrinsic and extrinsic. The intrinsic motivators include responsibility areas and competency levels. The extrinsic motivators include pay, promotion, work conditions, feedback and individualistic situations. Both supports employee motivation extensively. |
||||||||||||
|
Taylorism |
This theory supports wage payment as the primary source of motivation and better remuneration would enhance the level of productivity of the workers. |
||||||||||||
|
Mayo’s theory |
This theory contradicts Taylor’s theory and supports the fact that money alone cannot influence performances. The various social needs will increase interaction and they will impart more productivity as a result of social constructivism. |
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT IN EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION
Both leadership and management help in employee motivation to encourage them for enhanced productivity and also provide assurance and job satisfaction. The employees if satisfied with the various aspects of the job starting from the very nature of the job to the compensation policies would have better performance levels to add up to the success and sustainability of the organization (Day, Gronn and Salas, 2006). Both leadership and management could combine together to have the most effective combination of the work goals and the employee goals. The motivational factors of the employees could be easily understood and a healthy and fair work system could be developed thus reducing the conflicting situations. A well integration in between the leaders and the mangers will support better team management and employee engagement would automatically get increased. Competency levels will get increased and productivity of the organization, in turn, will get increased. Level of trust will get increased and proactiveness would get enhanced. The workplace environment would be healthier and the potentiality of the employees would get enhanced (Low, 2013). The relationship among the hierarchical positioning would be much more stabilized and the flexibility within the organization would get increased. Individual level performances get increased and they accumulate to add to the organizational level of productivity.
CONTRIBUTION OF PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
Managing the standard of performance and evaluating it with the benchmarked one is not an easy job and requires periodic review. The techniques used for performance management has evolved through times and the most commonly used techniques in recent times would include the followings- performance review meetings, setting up of performance objectives/ setting benchmarks, MBO plans, Personal Development Plans (PDPs), formation of quality circles, regular feedback considerations, preparation of confidential reports, checklist formation, development of critical incident methods, implementation of performance appraisal methods and other tools of management. The techniques would be more effective if an integrated Human Resource Management System is implemented holistically in the organization (Day, Gronn and Salas, 2006). Modern techniques like formation of assessment centers, MBO, Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS), Human Resource Accounting and role analysis would help in better evaluation of the performance levels. Once the gap is deduced it will be much easier to find the most effective solutions for better integration of the leadership styles and management functioning.
DEVELOPMENT AND EFFECTIVENESS OF TEAMS
DEVELOPEMENT OF TEAMS
Team performance imparts more effectiveness in comparison to individual performance. A well balanced team formation requires huge effort and group effectiveness is the capacity and capability of a team for better goal accomplishment in an organization. Team is generally formed by a collection of a number of individuals having varying fields of expertise. Task accomplishment opportunities are independent but their joint efforts lead to attainment of the results in amore enhanced manner. The team building approach requires group cohesiveness, group dynamics and support teamwork. Ti is found that the individual performance level is less effective than group performance (Day, Gronn and Salas, 2006). The individual could have wider performance gaps. Team efforts reduce the gap to the extent possible and support organizational success. In recent times quality circles are formed to have better team integration and information sharing options. Group interaction would increase the relationship in between the workforce members and thus conflict situations could be avoided to the extent possible. Teams are formed with some efficient expertise and some low level expertise so that their works could counterbalance each other and ultimate results could be achieved. First and foremost the team objectives need to be decided upon and they should be in compliance with the SMART acronym. Team effectiveness is dependent on a number of factors such as size of the organization, structure of the organization, composition of members, roles, norms and values and cohesiveness within the team. The characteristics of the members is to be studied that is a total SWOT analysis of each member should be done to know the actual level of performance (Salas et al., 2007). The motivational factors need to be evaluated so that the level of performance could be enhanced and performance gap could be reduced. Teams could be based on job requirements, operational outputs, and performance effectiveness. Good leaders are sound in maintaining a team and would support the flexibility within the team in the most profound manner.
ROLES AND MODELS OF TEAM LEADERSHIP
Understanding the team roles is the key to the success of a team and team performance levels. The members have clarified roles and responsibilities to perform in a team and every role add up to fulfill the ultimate objective of the organization. Team role is simply a tendency to contribute, behave and relate with others in a given manner (Salas et al., 2007). The understanding of the team roles will help in understanding the strengths and weaknesses of the team. Understanding of individual flaws and strengths will help in better team management and will provide additional balance to the team. The Belbin’s team roles could be classified into nine roles as under.
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Roles |
Characteristics |
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Action oriented |
Shaper
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Team challenger |
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Implementer
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Puts theoretical ideas into real action plans |
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Complete finisher |
Supports timely plan execution |
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People oriented |
Coordinator |
Chairperson roles |
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Team worker |
Encourages cooperation |
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Resource investigator |
External opportunities explorer |
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Thought oriented |
Plant |
presents newer ideas and creative skills |
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Monitor-evaluator |
Option analyzer |
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Specialist |
Specialized skill provider |
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Team leadership could be designed in a manner that will help in adding effectiveness to the performance levels. Decision making options are supported extensively and intervention of the action plans become more enhanced. Hill’s team leadership model will help in better interpretation of team effectiveness as it provides a systematic approach to team management. The flow diagram is shown below.
USEFULNESS OF TEAMS TO ORGANIZATION
Teams help an organization by supporting effective execution of the action plans, integrating the plans, and adding up the level of ambition to have better establishment of the organizational vision and mission statements. The usefulness could be perceived in the performance levels and the team effectiveness will get enhanced. Thus an organization cannot run smoothly only by employing individual employees (Yukl, 2002). Team works do play an immense role in adding up to the organizational success and will support sustainability of the same in the long run. Without an effective team the organization will remain plagiarized and performance levels could not be achieved to the extent desired.
REFERENCES:
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Day, D., Gronn, P. and Salas, E. (2006). Leadership in team-based organizations: On the threshold of a new era. The Leadership Quarterly, 17(3), pp.211–216.
Draulans, J., DeMan, A. and Volberda, H. (2003). Building alliance capability:: Management techniques for superior alliance performance. Long Range Planning, 36(2), pp.151–166.
Eagly, A., Johannesen-Schmidt, M. and Van Engen, M. (2003). Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles: a meta-analysis comparing women and men. Psychological bulletin, 129(4), p.569.
Low, P. (2013). Leadership and Motivation. Springer, pp.37–73.
Pearce, C. and Herbik, P. (2004). Citizenship behavior at the team level of analysis: The effects of team leadership, team commitment, perceived team support, and team size. The Journal of Social Psychology, 144(3), pp.293–310.
Pi\~na, M., Mart\’\inez, A. and Mart\’\inez, L. (2008). Teams in organizations: a review on team effectiveness.Team Performance Management, 14(1/2), pp.7–21.
Salas, E., Stagl, K., Burke, C. and Goodwin, G. (2007). Fostering team effectiveness in organizations: Toward an integrative theoretical framework. 52, p.185.
Yukl, G. (2002). Leadership in organizations. Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ.
