Law assignment on: Ethics inventory and moral beliefs
Complete an Ethics Inventory: Discovering your own moral beliefs (Hinman 2013, Chapter 1, pp. 7-9) & reflect on results, noting anything that surprised you.
Answer-On the basis of the moral point of the view, there are many elements which includes that some people get hurt due to cheating, since it is unfair for people who does not cheat, there are questions based on the character, some conflicting values are also there which includes honesty and loyalty. According to some philosophers, issues based on morals have been characterized by the terms which include right, duty and good. Impartiality is also the characteristic of the moral point .Having feelings towards others are the part of the moral values. We can say ethics are considered as nutrition for the moral health. Along with dissimilarity, there is also a similarity between ethics and nutrition. Morality has come from the Latin word, moralitas which mean manner and proper behaviour. The morality is based on the differentiation of decisions, actions and intentions between those which are considered right and those which are considered as wrong. Moral is a practice where teaching is done within a moral code. The synonym of morality is goodness. The golden rule of the moral code is that one should treat others, as they would like to be treated by others (Antony Flew, 1979).
Chapter 2: Understanding the diversity of Moral Beliefs: Relativism, Absolutism, and Pluralism
Explain the difference between an ethical absolutist, a relativist and a pluralist. Explain how each would respond differently to the issue of female circumcision. Outline briefly the difference in approach between an absolutist, a relativist and a pluralist in juvenile justice work
Answer-According to ethical relativist, each culture is right according to itself, so it may be acceptable in some cases, and in some cases it can be considered wrong. According to ethical absolutist, a single moral truth is there which has to be accepted by everyone. Ethical pluralist find some middle ground. According to Richard Rorty in 1982, it has been argued by the relativist philosopher that the grounds to choose between opinions is less algorithmic than has been .We will see the view of relativist on female circumcision with an example, some Sudanese people according to their tradition practice female circumcision, which has horrified many westerns. According to relativist’ it is wrong for eastern, but correct for Sudanese. There is no justification for a tradition of female circumcision according to the absolutist. Now we should discuss their views regarding justice. For an example there is no justification for murder according to the absolutist, people who are found guilty of murder should be given capital punishment, on the other hand relativist say that it should not be judge and not a single truth must be applied across society. Pluralist is a challenge to the values of the absolutist, along with it it also says that sometimes absolutist can be correct. According to pluralist one must tolerate to other views despite of knowing what is wrong and correct.
Chapter 3: The Ethics of Divine Commands: Religious Moralities
Why do some people argue that morality is only possible if based upon belief in God or a higher being? What are the arguments against this position? (Briefly contrast arguments how this difference might be reflected in debates about the morality of euthanasia.)
Many human services and youth work agencies are operated by religious organisations. What are the potential ethical difficulties that arise when workers’ ethics are informed by their religious belief? How can the difficulties be avoided?
Answer- Life is a supreme value; it has it values from the other values which make it possible, for an example worship of god, love to others, enjoyment, services to the others. According to some scholars killing and allowing dying are quite different based on the moral ground, and for others since death are the results in both cases so there is no difference between the two cases. The distinction between two cases is only the different way of ending a life (Richard M.Gula, 1994).When care is abandons and the dying patient is hasten to death, it will contrast the charity (Paul Ramsey, 1978).It is important for employer to understand the religious importance of their employees. Employer should be sensitive towards the religious issues of their employees and even they face risk from employees who do not have such conviction. For an example, granting holiday to employee on the religious basis may be discriminating for others. Companies should handle these kinds of situations properly. They should be aware of the fact that people from different religious tradition will behave differently, which can be an issue of conflict and it should be guided properly.
Chapter 4: The Ethics of Selfishness: Egoism
Ethical egoists argue that people should always act from self-interest. Outline some of the reasons they propose to support this position. Outline some of the objections to ethical egoism. What would ethical egoists say about professional practice that encouraged clients to become dependent upon the worker?
Answer- The basic idea behind ethical egoism is that each and every individual can pursue their self interest. People will not do any favour. For an example we do not injure others as we are afraid of going to the prison, this is for our own interest. If we lie, even we will not be trusted and we cannot expect t honesty from others, therefore for our own benefit we are behaving honestly. According to ethical egoism world is divided into two groups, which includes one self and the others, and first group is considered as an important group. The interest of the first group is considered more important than the interest of the second group. When employees work together, it is important for the development of the commitment. Resources has been invested, obstacles has been overcome and learn together. Business leaders should show honestly about the economic. if the company is protected from bankruptcy or some adverse situation due to any employees, then he or she should be rewarded. According to Adam Smith people from the same trade meet for both diversion and commitment and the conversation ends in some conspiracy against the public.
Chapter 5: The Ethics of Consequences: Utilitarianism
Consequentialists argue that it is important to look at the outcomes of ethical decisions before judging whether they are right or wrong. Explain the difference between an ‘act utilitarian’ and a ‘rule utilitarian’. Utilitarians argue that under some circumstances lying can be justified ethically. Use this example to illustrate the difference between ‘act’ and ‘rule’ utilitarianism. Under what circumstances might a utilitarian argue that it is permissible to break confidences?
Answer -Act utilitarian is a consequence of a single act, where as measurement of the act which has been repeated over again and again as if it were followed as a rule is a part of the rule utilitarian. One example can be explained, someone goes to the doctor, the person is ill and experiencing pain and series of tests and experiments have been performed by the doctor and the person return to know the result of his diagnosis. The doctor is aware of the fact that person is suffering from the life threatening disease. According to an act utilitarian there will be a great amount of pain in telling the truth and along with the patient, his family will also be upset and if they lie then that person has more time to enjoy, so according to act utiltarianian it is good to lie. The rule utilitarian believes that if doctor lie, they will not be able to have trust on doctors. Mackie stated that it is very unclear, that if utilitarian is given any position, should the good be distributed evenly, or it should be on the basis of any merit (J.L.Mackie,1977). So sometimes it is allowed to break the confidence to give happiness to someone.
Chapter 6: The Ethics of Duty: Immanuel Kant
Deontologists (Kantian ethicists) argue that it is important to know a person’s motives before judging the ethical value of their actions. Provide an example of an instance where someone’s motives make a difference to the ethical worth of their action. What is a ‘categorical imperative’? Give an example of a ‘categorical imperative’. Under what circumstances could a Kantian break a promise? What are the strengths of the Kantian position? Outline some of the weaknesses to the Kantian position.
Answer –According to Kant’s theory of ethics, for different reasons are considered deontological (Orend Brian,2000).Kant stated that it is necessary to act from duty (Kant Immanuel,1780), in order to act morally and the consequences of the actions should not be considered, instead of motive of the person should be considered to consider that action right or wrong. Categorical Imperative provides us with the way of evaluating moral actions and making moral judgement. It is not considered as a command to do any specific action. It does not say to follow any command or to respect elders, it is empty. The Categorical Imperative is impartial and universal, it is universal, since each and every individual being rational will act in a same way and impartial as their action are not being guided by their own biases. For an example if someone consider homosexuality to be immoral, then he or she should accept the fact that if they get involve in homosexual act, they will be considered as moral and they are destroying their own belief. The strength of the Kant theory is that it considers the action for the good intention is considered moral and the weakness is that it does not allow giving any moral significance to the consequences of the action. Kantians has argued that it is immoral act to promise to steal. If one has acted immorally in the past, it will not free him or her from the duty of acting in a moral way in the future. So when one has to choose between promise breaking and stealing, stealing will be considered as immoral act, but breaking a promise will not be considered.
Chapter 7: The Ethics of Rights: Contemporary Theories
What are the advantages and disadvantages of a rights approach to ethics?
Give an example of where it is appropriate to limit individual rights for the common good and an example of where it is not appropriate to limit individual rights for the common good and discuss the reasons for the difference. Provide an example from your professional practice of a situation where people’s rights conflict and discuss what you would consider when you decide whose rights are paramount. (8)
Answer -One of an advantage of a right approach to ethics is that when a time comes for making decision, a framework exists for deciding. If theft is considered as wrong, then the person who has right approach towards ethics should turn away the idea of theft. The disadvantage is ethics, on a whole it is considered incomplete. New ethical issues always arises with the change in culture and technology. It is sometimes necessary to limit an individual right for the good of the society. For an example any person playing loud music at his home, although that person has right on his property, then also it is disturbing other people, then it can be restricted to safeguard the interest of the society. In Hardin’s example, overgrazing of the cow is the interest of each herder .although it has damaged to many groups. This is an example where restriction on an individual right is not done, although it is damaging to the society (Hardin.G,1968). In an American workplace, for employees and employers, religion is a difficult field to navigate. The problem to this solution will be an elimination of the conflict of an employee between religious practice and work requirement and it should not be harsh on any employer.
Chapter 8: Justice: From Plato to Rawls
Outline the main principles behind Rawls’ concept of ‘justice as fairness’ and explain the implications for ethics.Rawls argues that it is sometimes fair to treat people differently from each other, explain his position and provide an example from your professional practice of how a Rawlsian perspective might be useful.
Answer -During the end of the twentieth century, John Rawls was considered as one of the important philosophers. He is known for the theory known by the name justices of fairness, according to which justice principles was developed ,in order to govern social orders. His theory has explained the principles according to which each and every individual has an equal right towards a scheme based on their liberties which is compatible with the same scheme for all. Inequalities socially and economically should give benefit to the members of the society which are enjoying less advantage. Susan Muller Okin has shown the weakness of Rawls’ in providing injustice. The responsibility of burden must be distributed based on the need and individuality of an individual. It is always assumed that the people who enjoy less advantage have greater need and people with special powers have excess responsibilities of burden. It is sometimes fair to treat people differently, for an example we can say policies which give permission for the establishment of nuclear power plants have degraded the environment for the family of farmers who are in a nearby area, but simultaneously it provide professionals who comes from the city with the jobs.
Chapter 9: The Ethics of Character: Aristotle and our Contemporaries
How is the ‘ethics of character’ different from other ethical theories? What are the advantages and disadvantages of this approach? What does it mean to be a good person? What virtues might a good person have? Is how a person acts in their private life relevant to their employment? What behaviour, if any, do you think is incompatible with employment in human services? Explain your reasons.
Answer -Virtue Ethics show concern regarding the characteristics which includes the personality, identity of an individual. The virtues which have been commonly acknowledged are kindness, politeness and honesty. Character can’t be turned on or off occasionally, it is a part of the identity. It can’t be controlled. People who are considered good, it’s not necessary that they are the followers of good rule. Their goodness lies in their tendency to do things which are good, but are not guided by any rules based on morality. According to Virtue Ethics one can follow all good rules, and then also he may not be considered as good. Aristotle, in his work which is known as Nicomachean has defined virtue as a point of balance between trait in excess and deficiency. On contrary love, kindness are the fruits of the spirits, against which there is no law (Holy Bible).There has been argument on the quantity of the work which should be bought home ,and feeling of neglect which arises, when one of the partner is busy with his r her work. Behaviours which include taking work casually, or missing deadline, avoiding risks and challenges, or complaining about their colleague, or their team leaders are the behaviours which are not compatible while working in any company or an organization.
Explain three ways in which traditional ethical theories present a gendered view of the world as if it were gender neutral. Outline briefly how Gilligan proposes these deficiencies can be remedied. Why do some feminist ethicists argue that feelings are important to judgements about what is right and wrong?
Answer -The idea which has been described by gender neutrality is that discrimination based on the gender should be avoided by any social organization, or any institution which arises when any role is considered more suitable to one gender than the other gender. Policies which have been made to erase distinctions on the basis of gender may be supported by the gender neutrality proponents. These policies includes same sex marriage, the belief behind this policy is that the roles of the husband or the wife should not be limited on the biases of the gender. In the law, gender neutrality the nature of the disputes over the custody of the child has been changed making less favourable to woman, unlike earlier days. For an example instead of policeman and stewardess, the term police officer, or attendant of flight should be used. Alison Jaggar, who is a female philosopher tells that the traditional ethics has let down the woman in many ways which includes less concern is shown for the interest of women, woman are not considered as mature morally compare to men, and independence, will, culture, domination, war and death are overrated in the case of man, and it is underrated in the case of woman and moral reasoning of male is always favoured which emphasize on rules and rights, and moral reasoning of female is less favoured who emphasizes on responsibility and relationships. In a Different Voice, which was published by Carol Gilligan in the year 1982,she has stated that male has emphasized on the freedom of an individual, as well as right of an individuals and the emphasize of female is on the care, and none of the approaches is considered as superior, according to her. Each approach is useful and resolves different issues socially, many feminist philosophers has questioned the ethical system which is based on the abstract rules. Female ethics has always given priority to emotions and that is due to the male bias, according to the Held. An action would not be judge by any female ethic according to principle and emotions will not be dismissed, instead of that, they will also see the emotional feeling behind the action, before deciding anything on the moral grounds. Emotions will not be only acknowledge by any female ethic as done by the utilitarians, emotions will be embraced for moral understanding which includes feelings for others, caring, sensitive to the feeling of others, through which morality can be guided
Chapter 11: The Ethics of Diversity: Race, Ethnicity and Multiculturalism
Why does the author argue that identity is important to ethical decision-making?
Do you think that positive discrimination can be ethically justified? Why or why not?
How might this approach be used to justify intervention to avoid social exclusion?
Answer -In the discipline of psychology, based on the professional and scientific knowledge, it is very essential for understanding the factors related with gender, race, identity, ethnicity, race, disability, sexual orientation. Status economically, or socially for ethical decision or, for their service or research based on them. Graduate students have been invited to have discussion on their diversity and its important role in their training. The program which is named as symposia has examined on the issues related to ethics which has risen when aspects which are related with an identity of a client has come into an argument, for example affiliation of a religion, or sexual orientation. The programs which were exploring the issue of diversity in decision making ethically has received a huge response. So we can say that identity of any person is very much related to the decision making. Recognizing of an individual based on the identity which includes age, gender, and experience has increased the treatment and understanding of the people in a thoughtful manner (Berberich, 1998; Greene, 2000; Jackson-Triche, Sullivan, Wells, Rogers, Camp, & Mazel, 2000; Wu, 2000).Positive discrimination can be justified sometimes. It can be explained with an example of sports. Sports events are being separated by sex, since we know that both male and female has different physical limits and the limits of both the gender are entirely different, so it will not be fair if women, or girl is fighting with boy, or a men in any sports event. Here the discrimination has been quite justified, and reason is also quite legal, which has made this situation acceptable that sports events should be conducted separately for both the gender. In some countries the term discrimination has been used in the place of negative discrimination, since in some countries, positive discrimination has been used, so we can conclude that positive and negative discrimination are quite different from each other. We can consider positive discrimination as an affirmative actions, these actions are taken to rectify the discrimination which has been done against the group which are worth of dignity and respect. For an example, we can say struggle of Dalit against system of caste in and outside the church has been promoted by the movement Christian Dalit Liberation movement, so we can say positive discrimination has extend to safe and protect the right of the Dalit Christians and schedule castes (Das, 2003).Social exclusion is a process of detaching an individual or a group from the society and preventing them from participating normally in a society ,so we can say positive discrimination which has been done to safe the right of the minorities are intervening in the social excursion.
Chapter 12: Applying Ethical Theories: Abortion, Capital Punishment, and Euthanasia
Redo the Ethics Inventory: Discovering your own moral beliefs (Hinman 2013, Chapter1,pp. 7-9) and reflect on any changes Now reflect on all your learning following question: Is it ever justifiable to use end another human being’s life? What arguments would you use to support your position? What would be the objections to your position? Draw on ethical theories you have examined to show how different theories might support different conclusions, and which you find most convincing.
Answer -One of the most important of Oder berg’s’ works), that is Applied Ethics which in 2000 got published. Traditionalist view points were applied to some issues which includes euthanasia, abortion and capital punishment. According to the opinion of Oder berg’s it is morally wrong to abort as during abortion an innocent life of foetus is taken which is not morally correct. In contrast according to the view of Peter Singer it is wrong to terminate the pregnancy with the killing of an innocent person (Peter Singer,1995). And according to Oder berg abortion was considered as contract killing, and it was wrong on the part of the state to legalize abortion until and unless it is harmful for the life of a mother. Life of the mother is very different from the mother’s health. Supreme Court has considered abortion illegal as technically, until and unless it has an adverse effect on the health of the mother. Physical and emotional trauma are considered as a part of the issues related to health problem, so they have made abortion legal during any time of pregnancy, in order to protect the life of mother..He also stated that the practice of euthanasia is immoral in a similar way to abortion, as it leads to the loss of an innocent life. According to Oder berg it is right for the state to practice capital punishment and death is the punishment for the crime which includes murder, the worst crime. On contrary, as told by some other theorist these kinds of act such as abortion, capital punishment and euthanasia is an evil act but this is necessary to avoid greater evil. Human being has no right to do anything with his body. It is unlawful to kill someone and excess grievances arises due to the loss of any person ,so the society of present ,as well as past has considered it a very serious, in some countries the long prison sentence is given as a punishment, and in some countries capital punishment is given which is quite justified, although this practice is not very common (Mark,2011).Murder is distinguished from killing which is done in the boundary which include killing someone for defending oneself, or killing soldiers of the enemy side during the war (Dennis.J.Baker,2012).Court has considered that when functioning of brain is stop, it can be considered as the end of the life (Jossua Dressler,2001).Suicide is also considered different from the murder.
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