Chapter 1: Introduction
The United States Bureau of Labor Statistics report employee turnover was at a staggering 5.6 million separations for the month of October 2018 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). The manufacturing industry realized a total of 345,000 separations of the 5.6 million for October 2018 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). The derivatives of employee turnover yield a multiplicity of adverse issues for companies (Mai, Ellis, Christian & Porter, 2016). The negative effects of voluntary employee turnover effects financial gains, job knowledge, competitive advantage, and the morale of existing workers whose work loads are often increased compensating for the employees that exited (Sarkar, 2018). As a result, minimizing turnover is an important strategic business initiative (Wyen & Op de Beck, 2014; Coultier, Felusiak, Hill, & Pemberton-Jones, 2015).
The conundrum of employee turnover is not relegated to a single industry or one single business consequence (Rehman & Mubashar, 2017).The issue of employee turnover and corresponding research studies on the topic, dates to the early 1900’s and continues to be a relevant topic for researchers and organizational leaders to mitigate the financial implications associated with turnover (Hom, Lee, Shaw, & Hausknecht, 2017). Employee retention is necessary for businesses to remain competitive both at national level and globally as the strategic nature of business evolves to change with the advent of globalization (Azmat & Rentschler, 2017; Nelson, 2014). Call, Nyberg, Ployhart & Weekley (2013) posits turnover as having a multilayered effect on a company’s human capital assets. It is multifaceted effects of employee turnover that has precipitated extensive research with the expectancy of identifying and correcting predicting variables of turnover (Rangel, 2018; Wang, Wang, Xu, & Ji, 2014).
Organizational culture is one antecedent of many that influences turnover, in addition to the behaviors of the leaders (Fallatah, Laschinger, & Read, 2017). Understanding the drivers that lead to turnover is important, but equally as important is understanding the tenets that lead to employee retention. Leadership styles are key contributors in shaping organizational culture and is also an antecedent of turnover (Rehman, Rahman, Zahid, & Asif, 2018; Klinkhamer, 2015; Visvanathan, Muthuveloo & Ping, 2018). Organizational culture which is the undercurrent of the belief system and demonstrated values within the organization is cultivated by the actions and beliefs of the leaders (Ahmetoglu, Akhtar, Tsivrikos & Chamorro-Premuzic, 2018).When an organization’s culture is such that employees want to stay, it engenders employee loyalty, and drives employee job satisfaction, drives production, and promotes employer branding all of which are necessary characteristics in a competitive marketplace (Visvanathan, Muthuveloo & Ping, 2018).
The purpose of this quantitative correlation, regression analysis study is to statistically analyze the relationship between the variables of leadership styles, organizational culture and its influence on employee turnover. The aim of which, to provide organizational leaders and stakeholders with data that addresses the consequential aspects of employee turnover and improve the outcomes.
Statement of the Problem
More than cost alone, understanding turnover is beneficial many industries. In the health care system turnover directly impacts the quality of care and organizational cost as the loss of nurses is a significant impact (De Simone, Planta & Cicotto, 2018). High nurse turnover can lead to quality of patient care and patient satisfaction. According to the Society of Human Resource Management (SHRM) reducing turnover overall improves sales growth and workforce morale (SHRM, 2018). Research conducted by SHRM (2018) asserts that turnover replacement cost can range from 50% – 60% of an employee’s annual salary. Research on turnover is important to any organization that employs. In the educational sector the cost of replacing high school principals varied by district from $10,413.03 to $51,659.27 per replacement (Tran, McCormick & Nguyen, 2018). While thousands of articles exist on the topic of turnover that dates back a century or more, turnover continues to be a phenomenon worthy of further study because of its multifaceted impact to human capital, national and global industries (Lee, Hom, Eberly, Jason & Mitchell, 2017). Lee, etal (2017) suggests further research is needed to understand the collective turnover process as turnover theories and evolved since the stages of turnover research in 1917.
Theoretical and empirical studies on turnover span more than a century, attesting to the significant long-standing impact turnover has on companies (Hom, Lee, Shaw, & Hausknecht, 2017; Lee, Hom, Eberly, Li, & Mitchell, 2017; Al-Emadi, Schwabenland, & Qi, 2015). The financial impact of turnover is only one aspect of the conundrum. Human resource professionals have an important task of implementing strategic initiatives to reduce turnover and protect human capital assets (Devi, & Krishna, 2016; Call, Nyberg, & Ployhart, 2015, Williams & Beidas, 2018).
Call, Nyberg, Ployhart & Weekley (2013) posits turnover as having a multifaceted effect on organizational assets. It is the financial implications of employee turnover that has precipitated extensive research with the anticipation of identifying the predicting variables. (Rangel, 2018; Wang, Wang, Xu, & Ji, 2014). In a study on employee turnover, Keller (2014) estimated the financial cost of turnover to be 213% of the annual salary for educated executive level positions and for a worker making $10.00 per hour job, the cost was approximately $3,328.00. As a result, it is essential to understand and analyze the antecedents that motivate an employee’s intention to quit abating turnover. The problem of employee turnover is not a new phenomenon and has been studied by researchers previously. Shantz, Alfes and Latham (2016) hypothesized that low levels of work engagement leads to a higher propensity of an employee’s intent to quit and influences aberrant employee behavior. It is an exorbitant cost that warrants continued and consistent efforts by leaders to implement strategic employee retention programs and enhancing leadership skills (Nunh, Heidenreich, & Wald, 2018).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this quantitative correlation, non-experimental study is to test the phenomenon of employee turnover and how the primary antecedent of leadership styles influences other factors such as organizational culture, impacting voluntary turnover at a call center in the State of Florida. The main variable to be explored is leadership styles. The data for the study will be collected from employees in the call center that services clients from different industries. The call center is a Business Processing Outsourcing contact center (BPO).
The participants will be selected as part of a sitewide confidential employee survey. The extraction of the data needed to execute the quantitative correlational study will be an electronic questionnaire administered to all employees on a voluntary basis. The survey will be administered in English. Personal verifiable employee data will not be included, however demographic information, and the client serviced will be preliminary questions. There are challenges that exist with this data collection method. A key metric of operating in a call center is the time in call with customers, and deviation or adherence below in-call metrics impacts the bottom line. Employees participating in a survey will be out of call status impacting productivity. A goal of the study is to assist organizations in proactively predicting and mitigating the predecessors influencing turnover as a cost reduction method (Wang, Wang, Xu, & Ji, 2014), thus making the study important.
Theoretical Framework
The ever-increasing need for organizational leaders and researchers to analyze workplace behavior continues to increase as the landscape of operating business changes (Gonzalez, 2016). Leaders have a fundamental responsibility to motivate employees to be productive and execute organizational goals Musinguza, Namale, Rutebemberwa, Dahal, Nahirya-Ntege, & Kekitiinwa, 2018; Kesting, Ulhoi, Song & Niu, 2016). Employee motivation is a pivotal factor that effects employee behavior including turnover (Mitevska-Encheva, 2018; Fiaz, Qin, Ikram, & Saqib, 2017). Motivated employees are more often engaged, more productive and often job satisfaction levels are positive.
The theoretical framework for this study is grounded on Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory on motivation.Vroom’s theory focuses on the psychological aspect of employee behavior associated with motivation and goal orientation (Lloyd, & Mertens, 2018). For the purpose of expanding the review on workplace motivation alternate theories on motivation will also be discussed in conjunction with Vroom’s Theory to determine how leadership styles impact employee motivation and influences employee behavior. Dinibutun (2012) asserts when expectancy theory is present, employees are driven to perform. Leadership styles influences the work environment and the relationships that exist between leader and employee. Ultimately having an influence on employee motivation (Cropanzano, Dasborough & Weiss; 2017). This cause and effect action speak to the employee’s choice for determining which reaction to exhibit in terms of behaviors that can drive performance results, job satisfaction levels and as a result engender turnover.
Vroom’s expectancy motivation theory operates on the premise that an employee’s performance is based on individual factors such as skills, abilities, knowledge and personality traits which influences the ability to choose. Lazaroui (2015) discusses four principles that grounds expectancy motivation theory:
- Employees enter the workforce with preconceived notions of what their expectations are from the employer
- A person’s conduct has a direct influence on his/her deliberate preference direct reflection
- Employees have key expectations that the employer will be transparent
- People will make choices that will be most beneficial to them personally
Lazaroui’s (2015) expounded Victor Vroom’s theory by positing that a leader’s management style and actions can be a motivating factor or demotivating factor for employees. A workplace culture that does not foster employee engagement and motivation intensifies an employee’s intent to quit (Robles & Washington, 2014).
Existing research on turnover in a water plant facility investigated the role of leaders as it relates to employee motivation. In this case study, the factors that influenced motivation supported the concept that leaders were in part responsible for building the organizational culture, defining the working conditions and fostering employee development (Fiaz, Qin, Ikram, & Saqib, 2017). The study revealed the antecedents that predisposed an employee’s intention to quite increased and the findings were indicative of the existence of a correlation between the leader behavior and turnover. Leader behavior and the workplace climate influenced the employee’s intent to quit. It can be ascertained from this study that leadership styles influence employee motivation and turnover. A workplace culture that does not foster employee engagement and motivation intensifies an employee’s intent to leave the organization (Robles & Washington, 2014).
Nature of the Study
The purpose of this quantitative, correlational research study is to examine the correlation between the predictor variables of leadership organizational behaviors, and organizational culture and the outcome variable of employee turnover. A correlational design is most appropriate for this study for determining to what extent leadership style and culture is directly correlated to an employee’s intention to quit leading to turnover. This study will examine how job satisfaction and employee engagement are interrelated to leadership style and organizational culture, extensive research on the topic of leadership concludes that effective leadership influences the group and environment (Leadership, 2018). The goal of which to mitigate or reduce turnover and contribute to existing literature.
Quantitative methods use numerical data and measurable variables through hypothesis testing to contribute to achieving the study goals, as a result based on this study it is most appropriate to utilize (Park & Park, 2016). The quantitative method of surveying the manufacturing production workers supports research integrity through the process of collecting data under controlled conditions and deductive process (Park, & Park, 2016; McCusker & Gunaydin, 2015). The questionnaire will comprise of demographic information, and three parts that consist of leadership impact, personal recognition, and intent to quit the organization. A 5-point Likert scale will be used to rate responses from participants which will be categorize from strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1).
Evaluation of the data will utilize regression analysis to analyze the relationship between the independent variables of leadership style and organizational culture. Both of which are a part of the study to determine the influences on other parts of the employee environment leading to the intent to quit (O’Brien, 2018; Regenwetter & Cavagnaro, 2018; Hyan, 2017; Curtis, Comisky, & Dempsey, 2016). This study will utilize regression analysis to analyze the data to determine the extent to which relationships exist between the independent and dependent variables and is therefore statistical rather than descriptive in nature. This framework provides a rationale for the hypothesis and a guide for the data analysis. Current research literature on the topic of employee turnover describes the correlation that exists between organizational culture, employee engagement, and intrinsic and the extrinsic motivational drivers that influences the working culture (Neymah, 2013; Memon, Baharom, & Harun, 2014). This exploration into previous literature is essential in furthering research on the topic.
The ability to prove or disprove the hypotheses in response to the research questions posed in this study will contribute to existing theory that leadership styles have a multifaceted impact on an employee’s working environment thereby precipitating a contemplated change in employment status. Vitally important is determining the correlation between employee job satisfaction, and how positive leadership styles such as transformational leadership influences an employee’s intent to stay with the organization. Employee retention helps the organization in work productivity, meet obligations to shareholders, internal and external customers (Kouni, Koutsoukos, & Panta, 2018; Abelha, da Costa Carneiro, & de Souza Costa Neves Cavazotte, 2018; Sirin, Aydin, & Billir, 2018).
Research Questions
The below research questions and hypotheses were developed in alignment with the study’s purpose to serve as a guide and ensure alignment. A plethora of literature exists that discusses the influence of leadership styles on turnover, employee job satisfaction and the overarching financial implications to businesses across a myriad of industries (Feyerabend, Herd, & Choi, 2018; Banjarbahor, Hutabarat, Sibuea, & Situmorang 2018; Gandolfi & Stone, 2018).
RQ1. To what extent if any, does leadership style influence turnover?
RQ2. To what impact if any employee turnover influences a firm’s financial performance?
RQ3. To what extent if any, does organizational culture influence employee turnover?
RQ4. What are the antecedents that influence job satisfaction?
RQ5. To what extent if any, does human resources candidate selection impact employee turnover?
RQ6. To what extent does organizational culture and leadership styles influence motivation?
Hypotheses
H10. There is a correlation between leadership style and employee turnover.
H1a. There is no correlation between leadership and turnover.
H20. There is a correlation between the predominant factor of leader behavior and turnover.
H2a. There is no correlation between leader behavior and turnover.
H30. There is a correlation between organizational culture and employee turnover.
H3a. There is no correlation between turnover and organizational culture.
H40. There is a correlation between job satisfaction and employee turnover.
H4a. There is no correlation between job satisfaction and employee turnover.
Significance of the Study
For over one century, employee turnover has been theorized and researched because it is a prevailing problem for companies (Hom, Lee, Shaw, & Hausknecht, 2017). The significance of reducing employee turnover cannot be understated. The United States Bureau of Labor Statistics (2018) reports there were 345,000 separations in the manufacturing industry in October 2018. This study is significant as it seeks to provide elucidations that add to the existing body of knowledge on employee turnover, more specifically in manufacturing. The study is relevant for several reasons: (a) contributing to existing literature to further predict turnover (b) contribute to the reduction of employee turnover a business cost savings of the manufacturing plant and other companies (c) improve the employee experience by predicting motivational factors (c) improve employee retention and competitive market advantage.
Increasing job satisfaction levels and fostering a robust organizational culture indicative of the working environment is beneficial to companies (Hur, 2017; Mercadai, 2014). Mercadai (2014), describes organizational culture as the formal environment and norms that characterize a specific organization, as well as the informal behavioral and social phenomena that occur among individuals in that organization. Mercadai (2014) states empirically that a firm’s understanding of the phenomenon of organizational culture helps organizations reinforce the working environment internally and externally. According to Wells (2018) call center turnover in the United States ranges from 30-45 percent and Business Processing Outsourcing (BPO) call centers turnover rate was 73 percent in 2016 the setting type of this study. The report posits that call center turnover is more than triple the average of all other industries conducted by employee turnover is still a problem in the call center industry. As a result, continued study on turnover is necessary to reduce turnover in the industry and improve profits.
The current national unemployment rate of 3.7 (BLS, 2018) and it is an important reason for human resources professionals and employers to invest in employee retention strategies (Lee, Hom, Eberly, Junchao and Li, 2017; Cloutier, Felusiak, Hill, & Pemberton-Jones, 2015; Ozolina-ozola, 2014; Al-Emadi & Schwabenland, 2015). According to the Society of Human Resources Management, the last time the unemployment rate realized such as decline was in 1969 (Society of Human Resource Management, 2018). A low unemployment rate puts the bargaining power in the hands of the job seekers and employees intending to quit. As it allows employees to have a choice in potential employers. Abating turnover and retaining employees is thereby critical to reducing voluntary turnover (Apostle, Syrek & Antoni, 2017; Stocker, Jacobshagen, Krings, Pfister & Semmer, 2014).
Definitions of Key Terms
Adaptive Leadership. Focuses on leader-employee relationship from a holistic approach (Khan, 2017).
Involuntary Separation. Organization’s decision to terminate employment (Stea, Foss, & Christensen, 2015).
Job Satisfaction. Is the attitude the employee has toward the work or job they are performing (Saranya, 2014).
Leader-Member Exchange. (LMX) – Workplace phenomena that occurs between employee and leader (Yu, Matta, & Cornfield, 2018).
Leadership Styles. Leader behavior/traits shaped by individual experiences, culture, personality, knowledge (Rehman, Rahman, Zahid, & Asif, 2018).
Motivation. The reason an employee shows up to work, what is the driving force as it relates to the hierarchy of needs (Adeola & Adebiyi, 2016).
Organizational Culture. The multiplicity of beliefs, values, behavioral norms, shared practices and ideology of a collective group in a work environment (Al Saifi, 2015).
Transformational Leadership. Admirable, ability to influence attitudes and organizational behaviors of employees. Aligns with Maslow’s Theory (Abelha et al, 2018.; Leonard, 2017).
Turnover. The number of employees leaving an organization and replaced (Kim, 2015).
Voluntary Separation. Employee resigns and initiates separation (Stea, Foss, & Christensen, 2015).
Voluntary Turn Over Intent. The precursor to turnover, a psychological event arising from a specific organizational or occupational event resulting in a consideration to leave
Work-Life Balance. The concept that prioritizes one’ s personal life enjoyment in comparison to the demands of work-life (Omar & Asif, 2016.)
Summary
Employee turnover is a topic widely researched because of its significance to a myriad of industries domestically and globally for many decades (Rubestein, Eberly, Lee & Mitchell, 2018). The financial impact is a key driver for researching turnover. The data derived from research on turnover can contribute to existing literature to aid organizations in understanding the causes of turnover and take proactive steps to mitigate. Companies and HR professionals have an obligation to its consumers, stakeholders, and shareholders to strategically grow a profitable business which includes cultivating an employee centric work environment (Fareed, Noor, Isa, & Salleh, 2016; Harrison, & Gordon, 2014). A myriad of research exists on the topic of employee turnover and is valuable to this study.
Chapter 1 discussed the impact of employee turnover to organizations and the significance of understanding the antecedents of leadership behaviors that influence organizational culture therefore inducing employee turnover. In chapter 1 the research method discussed was a quantitative correlation study. Both the problem statement, study significance and nature of the study discussed the details and importance of the study to supplement existing research and provide organizational leaders avenues to mitigate employee turnover and improve leadership styles. Chapter 2 of this study presents a detail and holistic literature review on the study’s purpose of understanding a leader’s role in the employee turnover phenomenon. Chapter 2’s literature will also review the types of leadership styles and the overall effect of the organizational culture, as the culture in part engenders an employee’s motivation to stay with an organization.
Chapter 2: Literature Review
The purpose of the study is to explore the effects of leadership styles on an employee turnover by examining its the correlation with employee motivation. These effects would also be examined through Victor Vroom’s (1964) expectancy theory which forms a theoretical framework for this study. The call center industry has one of the highest employee turnover rates compared to other industries (Zito, Molino, Cortese, Ghislieri & Colombo, 2018). This study will focus on employee turnover in a call center environment. Fauver, McDonald, and Taboada (2018) posit that identifying the predictors to turnover and mitigating it is advantageous economically and improves organizational culture. In the event of employee turnover, stakeholders such as customers, employers and the entire organization would be affected. Thus, the research would focus on establishing the effects the employee turnover on an organization. Generally, research asserts that employee turnover poses a huge financial challenge to an organization. Research by Hester (2013) shows that a moderate estimate of the cost of turnover is 30% of the annual salary to replace a lower-skilled, entry-level worker, to as much as 250% of annual salary to replace a highly specialized or difficult-to-replace position.
The structure of the literature review includes the first section that outlines the search strategies, parameters, and exploratory topics pertinent to the review. Following is the theoretical framework grounded on Victor Vroom’s (1964) expectancy theory to guide the study while concurrently exploring contrasting motivational theories to answer the research questions. Next, the literature review will explore the impact of employee turnover as a result of leadership behaviors. The influence of leadership styles on organizational culture and job satisfaction are predictors to turnover will also be examined. Prior to the summary the exploration of transformational leadership, destructive leadership types, and retention strategies will also be discussed. After reviewing the sub-topics the summary will be outlined to provided as a synopsis of chapter 2. The search for the study’s literature was executed using multiple resources primarily accessed through Northcentral University library. The databases used for the search include Roadrunner Search, ProQuest, ABI/INFORM, EBSCOhost, Sage, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, Emerald, PsycARTICLES, and PsycINFO. The search parameters strictly adhered to peer-reviewed article requirements, as stated in the Northcentral University Dissertation guidelines. There is minimal use of relevant journal articles from standalone websites utilized to supplement previous studies or support the data on the topic. The dates were filtered to include articles published within the last five years except for a limited number of pertinent articles obtained at the start of this dissertation journey but are still applicable presently.
Search terms and search phrases for this study include: Employee turnover, turnover intention, turnover cost, employee motivation, job satisfaction, intention to quit, leadership styles, leadership behavior, voluntary turnover, involuntary turnover, attrition, organizational culture, transformational leadership, transactional leadership, demotivation, work environment, business strategy, change management, communication styles, employee perceptions, employee termination, employee benefits, organizational commitment, leadership development, motivational theories, employee retention, attrition, and Leader-Member Exchange.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework for this paper originates from Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory on motivation (1964). Other constructs of motivation encompassing motivation theories deriving from Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs theory and Herzberg’s (1964) two-factor theory will lend to the body of work in this paper. This literature review provides a framework for understanding how leadership styles exacerbate the turnover phenomenon and offer measures to mitigate. Expectancy theory was selected as the primary framework in part because a myriad of organizational motivation theories that exist are expansions or modifications of Vroom’s expectancy theory. As an example, Lawler and Porter (1968) expanded Vroom’s expectancy theory to include the essential roles of leaders. Leaders must ensure that employee rewards allied to motivation are fair, equitable, and consistent, and based to Vroom’s expectancy theory.
Analysis of the literature will examine the relationship between turnover variables and the drivers that induce an employee’s intention to quit for this study, leadership styles. Through the lens of Vroom’s expectancy theory (1964) it is a cognitive process theory of employee motivation with the presumption there is a correlation between the effort they put forth at work, and the performance,and the rewards. Interrelated in the theoretical framework of this study is the significance of leadership styles on employee motivation.Wang, Wang, Xu, and Ji (2014) assert that leaders can only mitigate turnover and retain employees by accurately assessing the actual cost and reasons for turnover. Bonsu and Twun-Danso (2018) agree that many businesses fail as a result of inept leadership and toxic leadership styles. Expectancy theory is widely popular with scholars in researching work-related motivation, leadership styles, and the relationship between leader and member in the workplace (Lloyd & Mertens, 2017).
The foundational problem for this study is the ruinous effect of voluntary turnover prepuated by the antecedent of leadership behavior. Since the industrial revolution, employee turnover has proven to be a problematic business conundrum (Douglas, 1918). Douglas’s (1918) study on employee turnover dating back to the turn of the century posits that turnover was at the forefront of the minds of leaders in the manufacturing industries during the industrial revolution, and it continues to be a business priority present day. Scholarly articles researching the topic of turnover spans decades, leading to the evolution of business strategies examining employee motivation and the role leadership has in the process of employee retention in a multiplicity of work settings. Johnson and Lafrance (2016) conducted a study using a sample of 401 law enforcement officers from 23 agencies to determine the influence of the predictive values of work opportunity, ability, and instrumentality, which were stated to have either direct or indirect effects influenced by leadership styles.
Johnson and Lafrance (2016) further believed that officer’s expectations of career advancement is determined to a degree the work output. The findings by Johnson and Lafrance are congruent with those of Bhuvanaiah, and Raya (2016); Cloutier, Felusiak, Hill, and Pemberton-Jones (2015); Hom, Lee, Shaw, and Hausknecht (2017). All of the above studies theorize that work satisfaction, employee engagement, and productivity are interrelated and linked to expectancy theory. Regardless of the work setting, employee motivation, and the role of leadership are interlocked (Badawy, Gazdag, Brouer & Treadway, 2019). The previous studies including this study is relevant in adding useful literature to the necessity of reducing employee turnover and retaining. The advent of globalization and the
The call center industry has one of the highest employee turnover rates compared to other industries (Zito, Molino, Cortese, Ghislieri & Colombo, 2018). Fauver, McDonald, and Taboada (2018) posit that identifying the predictors to turnover and mitigating turnover is advantageous economically and culturally as high turnover requires management to hire, train, and onboard new workers. In the advent of globalization and the competition to attract and retain qualified employees, call centers have become an intrinsic business component for national and multinational companies (Hidenori, 2018; ICCS, 2019). Multiple studies on call center voluntary turnover investigate leadership styles as a central factor to an employee quitting. Khan, Imran, and Aizza (2019) analyzed destructive leadership as a job stressor for employees and also as an impediment to employee motivation. Data was collected from 250 telecommunications call center agents and administered through surveys. The research concluded that a correlation exists that leadership is, directly and indirectly, related to employee job stress, motivation, and job dissatisfaction, predictors to turnover.
Expectancy Theory and Motivation
During the early 1960s, Victor Vroom made a concerted effort to expand research in the area of workplace motivation and to fill gaps that industrial psychologists and practical models of that time did not encapsulate (Lloyd & Mertens, 2018; Kovach, 2018). Prior theories on motivation set the framework to identify whether internal or external sources influence specific outcomes related to an employee’s motivational state (Kovach, 2018). The constructs of Vroom’s expectancy theory depicted by Figure 1 consist of three subsets: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence, and are not mutually exclusive.
Expectancy theory, as work motivation focuses on the psychological aspect of individual work-related success and expected results outcome (Dinibutun, 2012). Dinibutun (2012) asserts that when the expectancy theory is present, employees are driven to perform for personal benefit. It speaks to the employee’s choice of determining which behavior to exhibit to achieve the desired performance result. Motivation is critical to workplace performance and the strategic objectives of the organization (Fiaz, Qin, Ikram, & Saqib, 2017). Existing research of a water plant facility investigated the role of leaders as it relates to employee motivation. In this case study, the factors that influenced motivation supported the concept that leaders were, in part, responsible for building the organizational culture, defining the working conditions, and fostering employee development (Fiaz, Qin, Ikram, & Saqib, 2017). The antecedents that influenced an employee’s intention to quit increased, and the findings were indicative of the existence of a relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Leader behavior and the climate influenced the employee’s intent to turnover. Victor Vroom’s expectancy motivation theory operates on the premise that an employee’s performance is linked to individual skills, abilities, knowledge, and personality traits, which influences the ability to choose. Lazaroui (2015) discusses four principles that ground expectancy motivation theory:
- Employees enter the workforce with preconceived notions of what their expectations are from the employer
- A person’s conduct has a direct influence on his/her deliberate preference
- Employees have key expectations that the employer will be transparent
- People will make choices that will be most beneficial to them personally
During the early 1960s, Victor Vroom made a concerted effort to expand research in the area of workplace motivation and to fill gaps that industrial psychologists and practical models of that time did not encapsulate (Lloyd & Mertens, 2018; Kovach, 2018). Prior theories on motivation set the framework to identify whether specific external or internal outcomes are related to an employee’s motivational state (Kovach, 2018). The constructs of Vroom’s expectancy theory consist of three subsets: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence, and are not mutually exclusive.
Expectancy theory postulates that employees have free will and make decisions based on their ability to choose what they perceive will lead them to the best self-satisfying outcome (Lloyd & Mertens, 2018; Baciu, 2017). The first construct of expectancy posits that individuals will behave or act in a manner that leads to a particular outcome; the increased effort would yield increase performance (Hoffman-Miller, 2019). Secondly, instrumentality posits that rewards will follow if an individual works hard (Hoffman-Miller 2019; Lloyd & Mertens, 2018). Vroom (1964) describes instrumentality as an outcome-outcome association, a construct that works on an individual’s belief links the level of performance to the effort exerted and performance achieved; performance at a higher level would yield a valuable outcome. The third construct of valence closely aligns with value.Valence is the perception of the anticipated satisfaction, while the value is the actual gratification after the reward is attained (Lloyd & Mertens, 2018). Motivation, expectancy, instrumentality, and valence are all interrelated in a multiplicative manner. Lloyd and Mertens (2018) explain that the value of expectancy ranges between zero and one. A given value of zero expectancies is indicative of no change in performance even with maximum effort.
Conversely, if there is an expectancy level of one, the effort will be maximized, resulting in the superlative performance. Instrumentality’s range is also between zero and one. Valences can have either positive or negative work outcomes. The range for valence is -1 to +1 (Lloyd & Mertens, 2018). An example of this is an employee who exerts maximum effort to gain promotion; the attainment of that promotion leads to a positive outcome. On the contrary, if a supervisor requires an employee to work mandatory overtime, the outcome may be fatigue and remorse resulting in a negative result. Vroom’s theory implies that for any rating of zero for expectancy, instrumentality, or valence, the motivational rating will match at a score of zero (Vroom, 1964). Sjovold (2017) states that leaders’ attitudes and interactions with employees influence the work environment to harness employee motivation and are conduits for successful outcomes.
Expansion of the Expectancy Theory
The expectancy theory foundationally supported the development of theories on work motivation and research on the psychological constructs of behavior in the workplace (Ponder, 2007). Organizational leaders understanding the antecedents to employee demotivation is critical in understanding how it impacts employee turnover.
The Expectancy theory is not without its critics and cynics. Despite being one of the most recognized and widely popular theories on motivation, critics of Vroom’s theory emerged soon after the emergence of expectancy theory and the publication of Vroom’s book on Work and Motivation 1964 (Wabba & House, 1974; Mertens, 2018). Lawler and Porter (1968), recognized the importance of work motivation and employee satisfaction and expanded Vroom’s theory while not wholly rejecting it. Lawler and Porter engendered the assumption that personal skills and abilities are factors within the theory itself. Mertens (2018) has a similar opinion to that of Lawler and Porter, asserting a relation exists between employee satisfaction and job performance. Vroom’s theory, criticized by Lawler, asserts:
1. Expected outcomes ranking is in preferential order on an individual basis
2. Personal actions will achieve desired outcomes
3. Personal choices/behaviors generate an outcome
4. The preferred outcome were derivatives of personal behavior
Porter and Lawler (1968); Mertens, (2018) asserts that previous individual relationships between satisfaction and job performance influence follower’s expectancy. A fundamental argument with the alternative models of motivation is that an individual selects the type of work behavior in line with the reward and motivation, differing from Vroom. One contrast, therefore, asserts that Vroom ignores the rationality assumptions that underpin the choice of behaviors (Lawler & Porter, 1968). Wabba and House (1974) have differing viewpoints regarding the constructs of expectancy and valence as lacking theoretical classification, and its instrumentality as abstruse, ignoring the social context.
A plethora of scholarly articles exist on expectancy theory and organizational leadership. Johnson and LaFrance, 2016; Hom et al., asserts the relevance of understanding the cognitive process of motivation in a myriad of work settings, as turnover is problematic in the private and public sectors. The benefit of leaders understanding how their behavior influences employee motivation is crucial to abating turnover. Fernet et al. (2015) assert that positive leader behaviors can motivate employees to accomplish results by being communicative, informative, engaged, and supportive. Expectancy theory as a framework for this study elucidates and supported by Baciu (2017) asserts that leader behavior influenced an employee’s intent to quit.
The continuum of Vroom’s theory explored by Harish and Sonam (2018), conducted a study on expectancy theory in the work environment of civil servants at the city hall in Romania. The research correlated work motivation as a predictor variable to performance output. One can conclude that motivation is a critical factor in employee performance. Harish and Sonam (2018) made the distinction that works motivation was different between public and private sector company employees in Romania. However, similarly to other studies on work motivation, the researchers in Romania hypothesized that the performance output of the civil servants directly correlated to the manager’s leadership style. By utilizing a convenience sampling technique, Harish and Sonam (2018) investigated through descriptive survey method data from two hundred and twenty teachers in four different school districts in Bhutan. The study investigated the impact of leadership styles on secondary school principals work motivation of teachers in Bhutan. The findings of the study indicated that the leadership styles of principals had an impact on the work motivation of teachers in the schools. Principals that demonstrated common leadership styles, the teachers realized higher work motivation compared to teachers subjected to an autocratic style of leadership. Suprasith and De Gennaro (2018), through literature reviews, asserts that work satisfaction is a critical element of employee motivation and a predictor of employee turnover. In a research study of 100 office workers, Suprasith and De Gennaro (2018) studied factors relating to work satisfaction and turnover as the dependent variable. The study concluded that employee work motivation was a contributing factor to turnover. Cloutier, Felsuiak, Hill, and Pemberton-Jones (2015) suggest the importance of further research on the topic of leadership strategies influence on employee motivation and employee retention. The studies contribute to the assumption that employee motivation is a crucial driver to employee turnover.
Employee Motivation
Motivation refers to both the internal and external forces that influence an individual to act, the extent of effort to act, and the direction and length of the action; it is the action the employee chooses or not chooses to take (Graves & Sarkis, 2018; Kanfer & Chen, n.d). Existing research on employee turnover examines motivation as a critical antecedent to turnover as it relates to an employee’s cognitive perception of Vroom’s theory of employee expectations (Banjarnahor, Hutabarat, Sibuea & Situmorang, 2018). Research on the topic of work motivation continues to be a relevant topic on business strategy. Researchers exploring what motivates and demotivates employees posits that leaders influence motivation. Utilizing a structural equation modeling (SEM), Graves and Sarkis (2018) examined survey data from 251 employees in the manufacturing industry to determine the extent to which an employee’s perception of leadership influenced personal internal and external motivation. The responses examined employee’s perception of leaders, leadership style, and work environment.The study determined employees who perceived their immediate managers as being transformational positively aligned with higher levels of internal and external motivation. A transformational leader openly communicates and inspires followers to achieve a common goal (Kouni, Koutsoukos & Panta, 2018). A plethora of research suggests that motivation in the workplace is intrinsically linked to job satisfaction and influence leadership styles (Malik et al., 2015; Caesens, Stinglhamber, & Marmier, 20 16). Moreover, Malik et al. (2015) draw a correlation between motivation, job satisfaction, and an employee’s turnover intention. Research continues to be relevant due to its significance to business operations, the global economy, and market competition in a low unemployment climate. Malik et al (2015).
The two types of motivation that influence how employees perform in the workplace are intrinsic and extrinsic. While popular studies on motivation is synonymous with Vroom, Herzberg, and Mcgegor, Deci and Ryan (1985) studied motivation as autonomous, controlled, and amotivation. The explanation adjudicates that positive effect of motivation is realized when autonomous or intrinsic motivation is most prevalent and is less effective when an employee is controlled or extrinsically motivated. When studying motivation, it is essential to understand why Basu and Bano (2016) posit that all behavior irrespective of the origin of the behavior instigates as an outcome to motivation. In essence, a person undertaking an action is doing so because of an underlying motive. The type of behavior a leader exhibit in the workplace influences the action the employee is motivated to take, to quit the organization, or to remain (Kauppila, 2016). When studying motivation in the workplace, it is essential to examine the role leaders have. A leader’s influence on employee motivation is primarily attached to extrinsic factors — the organizational culture formulated by leaders, the fringe benefits, and rewards and recognition.
`Alternate Motivational Theories
Employee Turnover
Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) reported the national unemployment rate in May 2019 as 3.6% (BLS, 2019). Low unemployment rates translate into an employee-driven labor force. The competition to attract and retain talent is essential in a market where employees have a myriad of employment options. Turnover continues to be a worthy research topic and is the most ubiquitous human resource metric (Human Resources Today, 2018). This quantitative correlation study aims to determine to what extent if any the effects of leadership styles on employee turnover at a Business Processing Outsourcing (BPO) call center with over 500 employees influence the high turnover percentage.
The topic of turnover has evolved and aligned with leadership training to meet the increasing demands of business transformation, market competition and tomitigate turnover (Hom, Lee, Shaw, & Hausknecht, 2017; Rubenstein, Eberly, Lee, & Mitchell, n.d.). Organizations have evolved into multinational companies conducting business all over the world. This expansion of business as a necessity to remain competitive in the marketplace brings with it a myriad of ethnicities, cultures, religious practices, cultural beliefs, and national customs. The differences and diverse nature of doing business make it a must for managers and business leaders to understand cultural differences . In essence, managers and leaders need to be culturally aware to motivate a diverse employees.
Effects of employee turnover
Turnover affects many aspects of an organization and many different organizational settings. Massingham (2018) found while conducting a longitudinal study in the engineering and technical field, that turnover impacts business operations in many facets. One area is job knowledge. The study asserted that employee turnover directly impacted the prevalence of job knowledge translating into inefficiencies in productivity and optimization of business operations when an employee leaves the company, job knowledge exits as well. The assumption concluded, loss of job knowledge has the propensity to impact the company’s competitive market position, the quality of service to its customers, employee morale and the company’s bottom line. Employee attrition consequentially influences an existing employee’s working environment and the firm’s overall performance (Fauver, McDonald, & Taboada, 2018). The impact of employee turnover is problematic across industries and cannot be understated. The federal government’s Office of Personnel Management determined the cost associated with employee turnover can range from 90% to 200% of an employee’s wages (Caillier, 2018).
The axiom “the only thing constant is change” is true to a multiplicity of situations. In the business environment for successful outcomes leadership styles must be adaptive to change (Alqatawenh,2018). The cost of employee turnover and attrition is a constant change many organizations are confronted with. When an employee quits a company and must be replaced with a new worker, this is considered turnover (Reh, 2015). The impact of employee turnover to organizations is a costly phenomenon. As a result, it is essential to understand and analyze the antecedents that cultivate an employee’s intention to quit.
The objective of the study
The study is to examine the relationship between the variables that trigger an employee’s intent to quit and employee turnover. The sole purpose of understanding that the relationship exists is to reduce the impact of employee turnover to companies. Employee turnover can be categorized as either a voluntary action or as an involuntary action. The rotation of employees in and out of an organization is a conundrum for Human Resource Professionals. It is essential that human resource professionals explore, gain an understanding, and execute strategic solutions like motivation that deter employee turnover. The ability to forecast and proactively abate the influences that contribute to an employee’s intent to quit is a precursor to reducing the impact of employee attrition and absenteeism to organizations.
Reasons why employees quit organizations
Employees quit an organization for many reasons. Some of which are voluntary, other reasons can be categorized as involuntary.Voluntary turnover is when an employee proactively decides to quit or resign and the reasons can be personally motivated or directly linked to the organization(Massingham (2018). Involuntary turnover can be the result of employer-initiated separation. The reasons for involuntary terminations are mainly due to violation of company policies, or as a result of company layoffs. Therefore, attrition can be both avoidable and unavoidable. Employees may choose to leave a company due to family reasons; others may leave for better pay and or benefits. The reasons for quitting because of family situations or personal issues are not within the scope of an employer’s influence and, therefore, unavoidable. Engaged leaders develop a climate that supports employees facing personal challenges, whereby positively effecting employee loyalty and retention (Kock, Mayfield, Mayfield, Sexton & De La Garza, 2019).
Kock et al., (2019) found leaders that demonstrate empathy in the workplace create powerful bonds that encourages employee behaviors that are antecedents to performance improvement, higher job satisfaction and innovation. The Hawthorne study of 1927 conducted by Western Electric engineers was a classic example of the effect a leader’s demonstration of empathy or concern for employees influences production output. The Hawthorne effect as it became known as, studied how workers reacted to the illumination of light. The experiment consisted of light intensity. Comparisons of two experimental groups studied under the same circumstances the group working with the researchers that demonstrated trust and concern performed better than the experimental group were researches demonstrated a hands-off approach (Chou, Lin, Chang, & Chuang, 2013). Mitigating turnover is proactively abating avoidable attrition. Companies may seek preventative measures to turnover by investigating predictive behaviors of employees and leadership styles. When employees leave an organization, the effects are far-reaching. Understanding the variables impacting voluntary turnover is a key strategy for reducing employee attrition.
Negative effects of high employee turnover
The ruinous effects of high employee turnover can have a negative impact on a company’s brand. In a competitive environment, company’s brand is key and it determines organizational success. On that account, organizations are required to prevent high employee turnover to avoid plunging themselves into a brand crisis. Not only does high attrition impact corporate performance, the reputation of the organization also is affected. Constant employee turnover gives the impression that the group is not employee-centric or is not competitive in the marketplace. The unemployment rate in the United States is at an all-time low (BLS, 2019). The labor market is tipped in an employee’s favor. This widespread phenomenon impacts productivity; increases the cost of attracting, recruiting, and hiring replacement workers. Additionally, research has shown that this effect may diminish employee morale and have a negative influence on customer satisfaction. The significance of organizations implementing strategic business initiatives to reduce attrition and positively impact profitability cannot be understated (McKinney, Barlette, & Mulvaney, 2007).
Previous studies supports the theory that a correlation exists between an employee’s initial consideration to quit and actual turnover is directly linked to an employee’s work motivation, dissatisfaction, and absenteeism as consequence of how leadership is perceived (Gregersen, Vincent-Hoper & Nienhaus, 2016; Banjarnahor, Hutabarat, Sibuea & Situmorang, 2018; Burns, 2017). The perceived lack of extrinsic motivational factors is an antecedent to turnover and the employee commitment to stay with the organization. Organizational culture and job satisfaction are predictive variables that can be used in attrition reduction. Exploring these variables as indictors is applicable to the current study on employee turnover, by correlating the bilateral effect of leadership styles on the work environment will allow managers to be cognizant of the influence within their span of control to cultivate and motivate employees. Measures can be taken to explore how employees view the organization and how satisfied they are with their jobs with the objective being to retain employees.
Employee engagement surveys and periodic pulse checks on employee performance, attendance, and employee relations are methods than can be used to predict future intent to quit. Human resource professionals could partner with organizational leaders to reduce turnover by formulating strategies and policies that encourage organizations to invest in the resources necessary to foster a culture that promotes employee enriched programs. Inclusive of this are attractive benefits and wage packets, work-life balance and open communication with employees(Banjarnahor, Hutabarat, Sibuea & Situmorang, 2018). These strategies are essential for employee retention.
Leadership Styles
Leaderships styles that are contrary to promoting employee motivation, productivity and engagement are harmful to retaining quality employees and overall employee job satisfaction (Burns, 2017). Leader behavior is not always positive and at times operates out of greed and selfishness and not in the best interest of employees. Empirical research on destructive leadership and its correlation to employee turnover produces negative organizational outcomes. This is evident as noted in cases of corporate financial scandals that stopped short of crippling the United States economy (Young, Robertson, & Sullivan, 2018). Examples of destructive leadership and toxic work environment is observed in the business cases of Eron and MCI (Young et al., 2018). Bagdasarov and MacDougall (2017) researched the case of Enron and highlighted the crucial impact of the leader’s behavior on organizational culture. Correlating Vroom’s theory on motivation and expectation of rewards, the study revealed a definitive link between the type of organizational culture cultivated by leaders and the promise of lucrative rewards for falsifying financials transactions and documentations that drove the unethical, fraudulent behaviors. In the case of Enron, Bagdasarov and MacDougall (2017) describes the Enron leaders as charismatic. Ostensibly, this description may appear positive, however, the fall of Enron is symbiotic of the effects of toxic organizational cultures and negative leadership styles. The greed and selfishness of Enron leaders, the unethical business practices and prevalent violation of accounting standards brought on job losses and ultimately changed the landscape of the financial markets in the U.S permanently (Young, Robertson, & Sullivan, 2018). Many employees lost their jobs and some committed suicide.
An additional literature review by Erickson et al., (2015) studied 30 military soldiers in 2010 in Iraq who committed suicide and concluded that the suicides were byproducts of toxic leadership. The findings of the study did not indicate that leadership style directly made the soldiers commit suicide but that the leaders influenced the decisions the soldiers made to escape the situation. The review of the literature concluded that the toxic leadership style influenced the soldier’s decision to attempt suicide based on the relationship between the leader and soldier (Erickson, Shaw, Murray, & Branch, 2015). The study is indicative of how destructive leadership styles impact employee behavior.
Transformational Leadership. The theory of Transformational Leadership (TL) by Burns emerged in 1978 and was further developed by Bass in 1985 and is the opposite of destructive leadership. TL is considered the pivotal catalyst for motivating others and inspiring action (Ewell, 2018; Jayavant, 2016). Parhdan and Jenas (2019); Sirn, Aydin and Bilir, (2018) believes transformational leaders have the innate ability to influence performance beyond the expected norms. The theory of transformational leadership is widely studied. Samantha and Lamprikas(2018) are some of the researchers that continue to advance the theory assigning a higher responsibility to focus more on the organizational needs instead of individual employee needs. However, Samantha and Lamprikas(2018) view on the origin of TL is different from Bass’ (1978) perspective.
Leadership resources have widely emerged over the decades as the focus on leadership behaviors, leadership development, and ethics in leadership become more imperative in the wake of multiple leadership deficiencies in the ethical and moral conduct of executives (Barnes & Spangenburg, 2018; Kovach, 2019). Organizations have invested in leadership training that focuses on a leader’s ability to build a relationship with employees and build skillsets in emotional intelligence (EI) (Koch, Mayfield, Sexton, & De La Garza, 2019). In the areas of academics and the military nine studies over the last eight years investigated the impact of transformational leadership on work outcomes. According to Kovach (2019), the studies despite contrasting settings validated the notion that transformational leadership transcends disciplines and results in higher achievement outcomes. Research findings suggest EI is important in self-efficacy, motivation, self-management, social skills and empathy (Nanda & Randhawa, 2019; Kim & Sohn, 2019).
Transformational leadership (TL) theory is not without its critics. While empirical research supports the assumption that transformation leadership is a positive influence on work outcomes and employee perceptions, McCleskey’s (2014) study on various seminal leadership theories contends that scholars Beyer, 1999; Hunt, 1999; and Yukl, 1999 are critical to the concept of transformational leadership because the principal mechanism of leader influence a core principal of TL lacks empirical work that examines transformational leadership in the work environment. In an era of multiculturalism and globalization, extant literature reveals a plethora of articles on transformational leadership as a framework for organizational leaders (Bonsu & Twum-Danso, 2108).
Organizatioanl Culture.
Organizational culture, as defined by the workplace behaviors, is the norms that characterize an organization (Sjovold, 2017). Existing research maintains that there is a correlation between organizational culture and employee turnover (Laddha et al., 2012; Lim, Loo, & Lee, 2017). Organizational leaders are responsible for shaping the culture. Leaders contribute greatly to the turnover factor and cultivate the organizational culture. Corporate culture appeals to the belief system of the leaders and employees of the organization as it pertains to their working environment (Suk, Ullah, & Won, 2015). In a research study of 309 nurses in Pakistan investigating organizational culture and the level and quantity of errors nurses make as determined by the work culture, concluded that nurses who worked in a culture that is positive and promotes adequate staffing and open communication reported less errors (Jaffree, Zakar, Zakar & Fishcher, 2016). Conversely Matos, O’Neill & Lei (2018) research suggests a toxic organizational culture is correlated to abusive leadership. Research dating back decades posits that leaders are responsible for creating, shaping and sustaining a positive work culture Matos, O’Neill & Lei (2018).
The reactions to these viewpoints and belief systems influence whether an employee stays with a company or leaves (Bhuvanaiah & Raya, 2014). Corporate culture plays an important role as it relates to an employee’s intention to quit. The existence of toxic leadership shapes organizational inefficiencies and employee demotivation (Burns, 2017). It is fundamental that organizations understand the phenomenon of how corporate culture effects the employee experience, as this helps organizations reinforce the work environment, internally and externally.
The successful integration of a fecund organizational culture can be achieved through supportive cultural leadership. The phenomenon of employee turnover is consistent throughout different types of organizations (Grissom, Viano & Selin, 2016; Harrison & Gordon, 2014 Memon et al. (2014) researched leadership behavior in the hotel industry, the military, and corporate companies, and concluded that leadership behavior is a key component to the job satisfaction levels in each industry. Leadership and organizational culture play an important role in employee turnover regardless of the structure or size of the company (Grisson, Viano, & Selin, 2016; Harrison & Gordon, 2014; Williams & Beidas, 2018). Organizational leaders have a direct impact on how the organization’s culture is shaped; as such, HR professionals are jointly tasked with cultivating an employee-centric culture.
Human Resources as Employee Retention Strategy
The Human resources function plays a vital role in any organization. A key function of human resources is the gatekeeper for employee relation’s matters, and the fair and equal treatment of all employees, which is an essential component of employee retention. A key responsibility of HR is to uphold state and federal employment laws, company employment policies and ensure employee’s separations adhered to organizational policies whether voluntary or involuntary (Ozolina-Ozola, 2014; Omar & Asif, 2016; Presbitero, Roxas, & Chadee, 2016). At the turn of the century labor practices and how employees were treated in the work environment came under federal law. Literature would have given the impression the human resource function of that time was nonexistent.
For centuries groups of people all over the world have encountered maltreatment due to prejudices ranging from race, religion, ethnicity, and gender. Society became acutely aware of the atrocities around the world. The slave trade, and later the annihilation of millions of Jews due to the Nazi Holocaust, World War I massacre and the carnage in Africa all of which foundationally influenced the mindset that some groups of people are superior to others (Davis, 2000). At the beginning of the nineteenth century not much had changed with regards to discrimination in and out of the workplace. Disparate treatment showed up in many different forms. Managing diversity as a strategic business practice acknowledges employees’ differences and recognize the value such diversity lends to the workforce. Organizations that include diversity as a business practice show better financial results than firms that are not inclusive (Nelson, 2014). Nelson’s (2014) study on diversity in the workplace concludes that companies in the top quartile for having a diverse workplace had 41% greater return on equity. Also, 56% greater earnings before interest and taxes than companies whose corporate culture lacked diversity and inclusion for companies within the same sector. Nelson further concludes that diversity creates a cognitive and social environment that is a positive indicator for innovation and a negative indicator for public confidence in the business
Discriminatory practices surfaced in the form of meager wages; long work hours, and unsafe working conditions. The employers were more interested in financial gain than doing the right thing by the immigrant employees, children, and women. Female and children workers suffered a greater degree of insidious treatment than that of their male counter parts during this time (Burt, 2005). Employment discrimination was not isolated to one industry. In the manufacturing sector alone discrimination was rampant. These lower skilled jobs ideally are considered the job of lower-class workers, usually minorities and immigrants fill those positions. A great number of workers, whom were immigrants were exploited by capitalistic employers and paid less than American workers, subjugated to discriminatory labor practices and treated poorly (Wang, 2015).
At the turn of the century the need for labor reform and worker advocacy groups was evident in the employment practices and actions of lawmakers. In the eighteenth-century factory workers were prosecuted and fined for requiring increase wages. For decades employers in the United States sought to maintain control of employee’s efforts to unite and fight for equality in the workplace (Ojourner, Frandsen, Town, Grabowski, & Chen, 2015). Researchers and scholars extensively study discrimination in the workplace by looking at historical data and analyzing the inception of discriminatory practices and how it effects the employees (Senteio & Matteucci, 2017). Discrimination by Merriam Webster’s definition is “the practice of unfairly treating a person or group of people differently from other people or groups of people: The ability to recognize the difference between things that are of good quality and those that are not” (“Discrimination”, 2017).
The importance of federal and state employment laws, diversity initiatives, and inclusivity in the workplace are important in retaining employees and averting turnover. For instance, some differences that exists in the work environment are age, gender, disability, sexual orientation, race, religious beliefs, social status, and marital status (Astrauskaite, Notelaers & Medisauskaite, 2015; Azmat & Rentschler, 2017). The preponderance of differences is what presents opportunities for creativity in the workplace, different insight, and experience that can benefit the organization attributed to individual uniqueness (Shen, Chanda, N’Netto, & Monga, 2009).
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was instrumental in setting the framework for how employers treat potential employees and existing employees. President Lyndon B. Johnson paramount legislative win was the sweeping legislation of the Civil Rights Bill in 1964 that President Kennedy began working on. The Bill made it illegal to discriminate against any individual based on race (Konstantinos, 2016). In context, the civil rights bill addressed the segregation of blacks in public places and discriminatory practices based on race, color, national origin or religion. The laws extended to labor practices under Title VII, directly and indirectly governing leader behavior in the workplace (Konstantinos, 2016). The federal law defined how employees are to be treated during the hiring practice and during employment.
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protects individuals against employment discrimination on the bases of race and color, as well as national origin, sex, and religion” (“Title VII,” 2017, p. 1). Title VII applies to employers with 15 or more employees in both the public and private sectors. The regulations mandated non-discriminatory practices in recruitment, hiring selection, employee promotions, and disciplinary actions including employee terminations shaping employment law in the United States. In the decades since the inception of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Title VII Federal anti-discrimination laws have further evolved giving the U.S Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) broader scope to enforce federal laws governing employment discrimination.
Federal anti-discrimination laws also known as The Civil Rights Act of 1991 enacted changes that the EEOC enforces.Before the significant changes in 1991, the Supreme Court had limitations on the employment rights of employees.Most notable are the cases of Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins (1989) and Wards Cove Packing Co. V. Antonio (1989). In both cases previous Supreme Court rulings abated if not eradicated employer liability. In the Price Waterhouse case despite the plaintiff’s ability to demonstrate discrimination, the courts sided with the employer. The employer’s position was that the same action would have been taken based on lawful motives (Flygare, 2015). The Wards Cove Packing case the employer avoided liability for the disparate action based on a business justification. The claim was that non-white employees were denied equality in promotions and were paid less than their white counterparts completing the same jobs (Preer Jr., 1990). Both cases made it an uphill battle for plaintiffs to triumph in a discrimination case against an employer. Discrimination of any kind in the workplace is an organizational calamity, at a minimum it is a demotivator and cultivates employee turnover. Laws were enacted to protect employees from such disparate treatment.
The anti-discrimination act of 1991 authorized compensatory and punitive damages to employees for employer’s intentional discriminatory actions to include Americans With Disabilities (ADA). The Act covers attorney’s fees, and jury trials if necessary, which were not a part of the Act prior to 1991 except in cases, held by the EPA or ADEA. The damages to be awarded are based on the size of the employer with the maximum award being $300,000.00 (Civil Rights, 1991). The Federal anti-discrimination act legislated after nineteen ninety was a win for employees. Title I of the ADA (1990) for both private and public sector employers prohibited discrimination based on an individual having a disability. Changes in the act of 1990 reversed the Supreme Court rulings that were extant in the cases of Price Waterhouse and Wards Cove. The action while benefited employees did not inhibit the employer’s liability when the plaintiff was able to show discrimination as a motivating factor in employment decisions (EEOC, 2017). While anti-discrimination laws are vitally important to fair and equal treatment of all employees, the ponderance of research that exists to support the theory that diversity alone increases turnover is not readily available. This is due in part because of the difficulty in measuring the effects of diversity (Katherine, Sheffer, van Nes & Van, 2015).
The United States is a culturally diverse ecosphere, the transfer of goods, services and talent globally as an interchangeable resource presents many benefits to organizations, as such employee turnover is an important global issue (Shaban, 2016; Gonzalez, 2016; Vadlamannati, 2015). Human Resources professionals are tasked with ensuring workplace diversity that acknowledges that people are dissimilar in many ways but treated fairly.
Discrimination laws have evolved and become more comprehensive to protect employees who are a protected class (Nelson, 2014). The impact of these laws has afforded minorities, people with disabilities, those whose belief systems are different a recourse when discrimination takes place. Successful organizations view a culturally diverse workforce as a strategic competitive advantage (Jones, 2016). Discriminatory employment practices demotivate employees and bring about negative repercussions in the form of high attrition, low employee morale and disengagement, negative impact to the brand, and an inability to attract top talent (Mitevska-Encheva, 2018; McCann, 2017). The laws are a roadmap and were enacted to protect the employees in the workforce.
Not all researchers agree that retention and turnover avoidance is the responsibility of human resources professionals. This includes employee wages, benefits administration, hiring, terminations, training, career development, and employee retention. Reducing employee turnover encompasses making a quality hire upfront. Ensuring the best candidate is selected for the position during the hiring process, having career development strategies and ongoing leadership and employee engagement initiatives in place. By effectively executing these initiatives. Some studies differ on the role of human resources as it relates to employee turnover and organizational stratagems (Allen, Williams, & Allen, 2018).
It is suggested by various researchers that human resource contributions to the corporate organization are limited, and further describe human resources as more of an administrative role. While the previously mentioned may have been true for transactional human resources in previous decades, the Society of Human Resources Management – SHRM (2018) states organizations are now looking to HR professionals to be strategic business partners with an equal seat at the organizational table. Some researchers attribute organizational efficiencies and profitability to globalization. Globalization is credited for four major benefits to domestic companies:
(1) Possibility of achieving economies of scale
(2) Exploitation of lower input costs
(3) Dispersion of risk
(4) Large enough markets to achieve the needed and desired growth
In the case of the USA businesses, 24% of small companies are already involved in the global trade and 64% of those that have operations abroad, scored positive results, as early as in their second year of international operations (Kostovski, Nanevski, & Gjurcevski, 2016, p. 43). The interaction with culturally diverse nations, differences in religious beliefs and national customs require acceptance and tolerance of these differences that are associated with globalization (Kostovski, Nanevski, & Gjurcevski, 2016, p. 43).
With the evolution and popularity of globalization, research studies conclude human resources is a strategic business partner to the success of the organization effectively impacting strategies and policies for successful outcomes to include employee retention (Cabral-Cardoso, 2014; Dwivedi & Kaushik, 2015). As a strategic business partner HR professional use different resources such as surveys, roundtables, and employee engagement cards to acquire an understanding of how employees perceive leadership and their working environment, to bolster employee engagement and job satisfaction (Bandow & Self, 2016). Subsequently, by acquiring this information from employees, human resource professionals can proactively strategize employee retention initiatives based on predictive behaviors regarding employee turnover.
The role of human resources is multifaceted. Human Resource Professionals align strategies to accomplish the strategic goals of the organizations and ensure the employees working environment is conducive to a long and happy career.The Society for Human Resource Management (2015) agrees employee turnover is a financial burden to companies. The human resource department of any organization is a central part of the company. Human Resource professionals hold key positions to establish strategies and policies to reduce absenteeism and employee turnover (SHRM, 2015).
Human resource professionals are skilled in exploring and extracting information from employees regarding their internal motivators and external motivators. As a result, create strategies to retain employees and enhance the culture of the organization are formulated and created. By studying exit surveys, Human Resource professionals can proactively minimize both the turnover ratio and the cost associated with attrition and absenteeism. Corporate performance and organizational stability are intrinsically linked to employee turnover. The problem of employee turnover is not a new phenomenon. For many years’ organizations have sought strategies to reduce employee attrition. It is an exorbitant problem that warrants continued the efforts and manageability of human resource professionals to implement strategic employee retention programs.
Employee retention originates in the recruiting and hiring phase, requiring time, money, and skill to find the right person to fit the job. The recruiting aspect of human resources is responsible for advertising open positions, screening candidates for the purpose of selecting the best applicants, testing, and interviewing the potential employees. A strategic component of recruiting is presenting competitive wages; an attractive benefits package, a successful work environment, and employee training and development. Candidate selection and job fit are turnover predictors as candidate selection is important when considering future employee attrition.
A retention strategy of human resources is to cultivate an auspicious work environment that employees thrive in. Employee recognition programs, work-life balance, and productivity incentives such as pay-for- performance, and monetary rewards incentives, are components to retaining high potential employees (Goodrich and Singer, 2006). Open communication between leadership and employees, including human resources is vital in executing effective retention strategies. Employee development is a tool in reducing the impact and amount of employee turnover. Sinha et al (2014) suggests companies that have a progressive career development program; one which gives employees the opportunity to grow and charts career progression experience less employee turnover and job satisfaction rates.
Job Satisfaction
According to Abelha, da Costa Carneiro, and de Souza (2018) and Apostel, Syrek and Antoni (2018) job quality and the work environment have a direct impact on job satisfaction, and employee loyalty. Alternatively, poor job quality and a lack of job satisfaction will inversely affect employee turnover. The review of the literature supports the hypothesis that the impact and cost of employee turnover can be reduced if companies adequately control and manage the variables attributing to attrition. A focus area that will assist in reducing employee turnover is to promote open communication between leaders and employees, in addition to promoting employee involvement in the decisions that affect their careers.The study determination by Gorman (2013) reiterates that this is achieved when managers focus initiatives on improving employee engagement. Methods of leaders achieving employee job satisfaction include positive leadership styles, and proactively alternating styles as determined by the situation that is needed.
Chapter 3: Research Method
Most companies are in business for profits, and any impasse that impedes that goal is challenges, compromises the interest of stakeholders, and investors (Soni & Soni, 2016). In an employee driven employment market and a consumer-centric business structure, it is imperative for organizations to have a strategic initiative to understand, measure and abate employee turnover as a deterrent to costly outcomes (Cloutier, Felusiak, Hill, & Pemberton-Jones, 2015; Anwar, Shah & Hasnu, 2016).
It is therefore prudent to ensure leaders use a theoretical framework, existing articles and ensure that studies choosen will be relevant to the study on employee turnover. The theoretical framework will expand on theory and knowledge that are preexisting.Analysis of the collected data will examine the relationships between turnover variables and an employee’s intent to quit a company, ultimately leading to the turnover. Current literature describes the correlation that exists between organizational culture, employee engagement, and intrinsic and extrinsic motivational drivers (Neymah, 2013). Sources obtained in the literature review similarly agree that employee turnover is problematic and financially challenging for companies. This chapter seeks to provide a clear roadmap on the present quantitative correlation study’s research method and design, how the data was collected and analyzed
Research Methodology and Design
The research method applicable for this study is a quantitative method using a correlation design. One advantage of using a quantitative approach which is best suited for this study is the format of the data collection extrapolated from surveys, reducing the number of variables lending to a more precise analysis despite the large number of participants. This method is more appropriate to answer the research question to what extent does leadership style influence employee turnover, a quantitative method is best suited to accomplish this task. Successful execution of most business tasks in a call center involves numerical data. Utilizing a statistical approach is a format that organizational leaders are more accustomed to at this call center. The correlational method using a regression analysis is aptly suited to measure association of the strength or lack thereof between the constructs (Hung, Bounsanga, & Voss, 2017; Makaka, 2012). The quantitative nature of the study will quantify the study instruments to test the hypothesis and answer the research questions. There is a vacillation between using a mixed method approach or qualitative method instead of quantitative, however based on the numerical and statistical nature of the study to be conducted, the quantitative correlation method is most apropos. The amount of data extrapolated from a qualitative is not as efficient as the quantitative method which condenses data, limits the number of variables (McCusker & Gunaydin, 2015). McCuster and Gunaydin (2015) conversely asserts that the qualitative approach to research relies greatly on the skill of the interviewer in observing lived experiences, enhancing data while addressing generalizations in addition to being and more time consuming. A qualitative method is not the best match for this present study as it is mainly using words, observations, themes to imply the research findings influencing the findings (Creswell & Clark, 2011). According to Creswell and Clark (2011) the process of qualitative research creates meaning from the data while concurrently building the concepts, themes and abstractions. As result, a qualitative research method is not applicable for this study.
The sample population will be selected from a random selection of 196 employees from a BPO call center Florida. The total employee population is 620. Determination of the sample size is an essential component of the research design (Zikmund, Babin, Carr, & Griffin, 2013). A smaller sample size will be selected because it is less time consuming and less costly to the organization. A priori-computation will be used to determine the sample size. In this study there are multiple independent variables and one dependent variable, which is employee turnover. In contrast, larger sample sizes are inclined to be more accurate (Pung, Maher, & Granger, 2019). The statistical analysis for this study seeks to determine a correlation between the variables by implementing measures of association by utilizing one or more of the following: Correlation coefficient (chi-square test), scatter diagram, and regression line. The present study design will consist of the following phases:
- Define the related concepts
- Define the interaction types
- Precisely convert text to frequency distribution
- Exploration of context of the frequency distribution
- Explore the interactions with the context
- Use graphics to depict the resulting maps
Population and Sample
The study will utilize probability sampling using randomization. To determine the required sample size a prior computation will be utilized using the four variables of statistical inference.The sampling of agents will encompass both full time and part time status workers who are over the age of 18 years. The age will range from age 18 years to 57 years of age. The sample population will be inclusive of both male and female employees in a predominately mixed ethnicity BPO contact center. The proposed sample population of call center leadership will be total of 46 with 63% male and 37% female. The total sample size for the study will be 196. All employees participating in the study will have access to the internet and electronic mail. The surveys will be administered electronically on the computers.
The G*Power figure below shows the proposed sample size of 196 subjects with the given criteria of α = .05, β = .2, Power (1- β err prob).
Figure 4 Representation of sample size of 196 employees
Figure 3 Representation of sample size of 196 employees
Instrumentation
Surveys will electronically be delivered to employees using company email. Prior to the survey team manager will provide the nature and confidentiality of the survey to the respective e teams 14 days prior to the survey. The human resources department will promote the survey through internal digital media and electronic mail. Employees with less than 90 days tenure at the time of the survey are not permitted to participate. Creswell (2014) emphasized the importance of providing survey participants the purpose and transparency of surveys. The survey will remain open for 14 days allowing employees the opportunity to participate. There will be no paper copy of the survey disseminated and safeguards from the corporate HR teams will ensure the tenure criteria is met for participation. The survey will contain demographic questions to capture gender, age, ethnicity, years of call center experience, race, and education.
Operational Definitions of Variables
Leadership style, organizational culture and motivation data will be measured using the Likert 5-point scale and compiling the open-ended questions in themes.
Leadership Styles. Leadership styles are the behaviors leaders exhibit in the workplace to manage employees and direct employees toward a goal (Yao & Huang, 2018).
Organizational Culture. Represents the system of beliefs common to employees that differentiates the organization from other organization, it can be the teams and climate, innovation and people centric policy (Camelia, Ioana-Valentina, Larisa-Andrea, 2019).
Employee Motivation. Chang and Teng (2017) describes motivation as an employee’s desire to reach both personal and organizational goals. Linking engagement to motivation as three dimensional: cognitive, physical and emotional.
Job Satisfaction. The measure of which an employee finds satisfaction in the work they are performing (Hoffman-Miller, 2019).
Employee Turnover/Intent to Quit. Widely studied topic in the practitioner and academic settings as to why employees leave and is consistently an important issue for organizations (Strojilova & Rafferty, 2013).
Study Procedures
Confidentiality in the call center is essential. To conduct a study on employee turnover and leadership styles at this facility requires approval from the VP of Operations and the Director of Human Resources. The call center services multiple clients whose workload is agent specific. Some client and company service order agreements prohibit agents from accessing any other information on the desk top other than client specific data. The first step in requesting permission to conduct the survey would be to send an electronic request to both the VP and the HR Director. After receiving approvals, excitement and advertising around the survey would be untaken to boost participation levels. Participation will be limited to employees with tenure above 90 days. Prior to the survey employees will be notified of the voluntary nature of the study. A survey link will be sent to all agents through the company assigned work email address
Data Collection and Analysis
A crucial step in answering the research question is gathering relevant data (Li et al, 2015). Extrapolation of the survey data will be in SPSS version 25 for Windows 10. Data will be collected from the sample participants/the call center agents at the BPO call center in the State of Florida in the form of survey questionnaires.Terminology and techniques for empirical measures will be conducted to accurately as possible capture the measured data in numerical form. The study seeks to assess the effects of employee turnover and the correlation between the antecedents: leadership styles, organizational culture, employee job satisfaction and motivation. The intended study will utilize surveys and exit survey data as collection instruments. Format of the questionnaires will be in the form of Likert Scale Questions, and Graphic Rating Questions. Fixed-alternative questions will also be used as part of the data collection process. This type of questioning is described as an effective widely held word design for turnover study. Contingent on the answers obtained from participants, and what is being asked in the questionnaires, fixed-alternative questions, require less interviewer skill, take less time, and are easier for the respondent to answer (Zikmund, Babin, Carr & Griffin, 2013, p. 338). Open-ended questions and fixed-alternative questions often are used together in questionnaires and will be used in conjunction with closed ended questions in this propose research. In determining a response to the question “about the general frequency of occurrence”, this type of question is appropriate (Zikmund, Babin, Carr & Griffin, 2013, p. 339). The questions will be constructed taking into account the type of work a call center agent performs and will categorized into five top areas of satisfaction and top five areas of opportunities. The two main constructs of the questionnaire will focus on 1. People Factors – employee experience and leaders 2. Organization Factors – culture and work.
Figure 4
Strengths and Weaknesses of this Quantitative Design and Method
| Strengths | Weaknesses |
| Cost effective | Low response rate |
| Reduce researcher bias | Close ended support |
| Less intrusive | Lack of personal touch |
| High representativeness | Observation security |
Figure 4 Strengths and Weaknesses of this Quantitative Design and Method.
Adapted from Ochieng, B. M. N., & Meetoo, D. (2015). Using mixed methods when researching communities. Nurse Researcher (2014+), 23(1), 16.
Descriptive statistic will be used to describe the measures of central tendency. Multiple linear regression analysis will be used to examine any correlation between leadership styles, organizational culture, job satisfaction and turnover. The data will be assembled and group by team manager for reporting purposes and summarized in compilations determined by the categories of the research question. The summarization process is not limited the use of any one of the following: Frequency tables, descriptive cross tabulations, figures, means or proportions.
Assumptions
Potential assumptions of this study are that all participants would answer each question honestly and that each person that received a survey would participate. The researcher will assume that no anonymity issues or confidentiality issues will exist. Another is assumption is despite the fact the employees with less than 90 days tenure will not be allowed to participate, the sample size which governs the variability of the population, is a proper cross-sampling of all data that is available.
Limitations
By using the questionnaire method potential limitations to data collection exist. Survey respondents may not be inclined to complete the survey and resulting in a low response number. Interpretation of the questions and its intended meaning may be influenced by an employee’s background, age, demographics and gender. Employees may not have full confidence in the anonymity of the survey. Another delimitation is the survey would have to be scheduled in advanced by workforce planning paying closer attention to low call volume days to minimize the impact of agents not available to take incoming calls. The limitations mentioned are outside of the researcher’s span of control. Another limitation to consider is the study will not open to the entire employee population. As a result, the data may not present a true depiction of all employees.
Delimitations
Narrowing the scope of the study is the purpose for delimiting. The population sample is not a complete representation of the entire employee base at the call center in Florida. Only employees with more than 90 days will be allowed to participate, that is one delimitation of the study. Researcher generally used delimitation to address how to narrow the scope of the study or bounded.
Measurement
The characteristics of measuring data include specificity, continuity, and preciseness. Within the propose study, the first step in the data analysis will be the identification of the level of measurement. The four levels of measurement include nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio (Krathwohl, 2009, p. 371). The level of measure can be instrumental in influencing the type of analysis used. Validity and reliability are essential to measurement. The intent of the present study is to ensure the study is valid, reliable and consistent. Validity is the key component to ensure the instrument measures the intended content (Trochim, Donnelly, & Arora, 2014). Threats to internal validity include selection bias, maturation and confounds. The study will be conducted by administering questionnaires to organizational leaders and front-line agents. Previously administered exit survey interviews will also be used to obtain an accurate perception of why employees leave voluntarily. Two types of questionnaires will be administered. One generated for leader behavior and the other to extrapolate information from the agent level perspective on organizational culture as it relates to motivation as an antecedent to job satisfaction or dissatisfaction.
Ethical Assurances
Potential ethical issues with quantitative research include informed consent, beneficence, distress, misrepresentation, information, voluntariness, confidentiality and privacy. The participants of a study are to be protected; the researcher is compelled to conduct his/herself with the uttermost integrity. Lastly, safeguards are needed when using human subjects (Krathwohl, 2012). Ethical considerations in research are crucial. According to Krathwohl (2009), trust is essential to accepting study findings. Trust optimizes audience credibility, and one manner of executing this is to include basic information regarding the purpose of the study. The purpose of the present study is to determine a statistically significant correlation between the criterion variable of employee turnover and the main predictor variables of leadership styles, with subsets of leadership behavior and on organizational culture and employee motivation, the data for this study will be securely stored in accordance with IRB requirements. Study participants will be informed, not subject to risk or harm or confidentiality breached.
Regulatory agencies and professional societies constructed codes of ethics for researchers as the level of attention and requirement from society has demanded more accountability (Flemming & Zegwaard, 2018). Human subjects and animals’ subjects are protected by guidelines established by professional committees whose goals are to ensure that the potential worth of knowledge the research may extrapolate is not worth the discomfort and or suffering of the subjects (Krathwohl, 2009). Research is conducted with safeguards in place to protect human subjects. The fourteen steps listed by Krathwohl (2009) considers the protection of human subjects when analyzing and coding the data.
Summary
The purpose of this proposed quantitative correlation study is to examine to what extent leadership styles influence employee turnover investigating the effects it has on the antecedents of organizational culture, employee motivation and turnover intent. Utilizing descriptive and inferential statistical analysis voluntary turnover will be analyzed to support or deny the following hypotheses:
H1 = There is a correlation between leadership style and employee turnover.
Hο = There is no correlation between leadership and turnover.
H1 = There is a correlation between the predominant factor of leader behavior and turnover.
Hο = There is no correlation between leader behavior and turnover.
H1 = There is a correlation between organizational culture and employee turnover.
Hο = There is no correlation between turnover and organizational culture.
H1 = There is a correlation between job satisfaction and employee turnover.
Hο = There is no correlation between job satisfaction and employee turnover.
The study data will be collected using surveys and analyzed using SPSS 25.0 for Windows 10. The study seeks to answer the research question using multiple linear regressions. A main purpose of the study is to contribute to the existing research on the topic of employee turner and assist organizational leadership in reducing turnover and retaining quality employees. Chapter 4 will present the data obtained from the survey in more detail and discuss the data interpretation.
Chapter 4: Findings
Begin writing here…
Checklist:
☐ Begin with a brief overview of the purpose of the study and the organization of the chapter.
☐ Organize the entire chapter around the research questions/hypotheses.
XXX of the Data
Checklist:
☐ For qualitative studies, clearly identify the means by which the trustworthiness of the data was established. Discuss credibility (e.g., triangulation, member checks), transferability (e.g., the extent to which the findings are generalizable to other situations), dependability (e.g., an in-depth description of the methodology and design to allow the study to be repeated), and confirmability (e.g., the steps to ensure the data and findings are not due to participant and/or researcher bias).
☐ For quantitative studies, explain the extent to which the data meet the assumptions of the statistical test and identify any potential factors that might impact the interpretation of the findings. Provide evidence of the psychometric soundness (i.e., adequate validity and reliability) of the instruments from the literature as well as in this study (as appropriate). Do not merely list and describe all the measures of validity and reliability.
☐ Mixed methods studies should include discussions of the trustworthiness of the data as well as validity and reliability.
Results
Begin writing here…
Checklist:
☐ Briefly discuss the overall study. Organize the presentation of the results by the research questions/hypotheses.
☐ Objectively report the results of the analysis without discussion, interpretation, or speculation.
☐ Provide an overview of the demographic information collected. It can be presented in a table. Ensure no potentially identifying information is reported.
Research question 1/hypothesis. Text…
☐ Report all the results (without discussion) salient to the research question/hypothesis. Identify common themes or patterns.
☐Use tables and/or figures to report the results as appropriate.
☐ For quantitative studies, report any additional descriptive information as appropriate. Identify the assumptions of the statistical test and explain how the extent to which the data met these assumptions was tested. Report any violations and describe how they were managed as appropriate. Make decisions based on the results of the statistical analysis. Include relevant test statistics, p values, and effect sizes in accordance with APA requirements.
☐ For qualitative studies, describe the steps taken to analyze the data to explain how the themes and categories were generated. Include thick descriptions of the participants’ experiences. Provide a comprehensive and coherent reconstruction of the information obtained from all the participants.
☐ For mixed methods studies, include all of the above.
Evaluation of the Findings
Begin writing here…
Checklist:
☐ Interpret the results in light of the existing research and theoretical or conceptual framework (as discussed in Chapters 1 and 2). Briefly indicate the extent to which the results were consistent with existing research and theory.
☐ Organize this discussion by research question/hypothesis.
☐ Do not draw conclusions beyond what can be interpreted directly from the results.
☐ Devote approximately one to two pages to this section.
Summary
Begin writing here…
Checklist:
☐ Summarize the key points presented in the chapter.
Chapter 5: Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusions
Begin writing here…
Checklist:
☐ Begin with a brief review of the problem statement, purpose statement, methodology, design, results, and limitations.
☐ Conclude with a brief overview of the chapter.
Implications
Begin writing here…
Checklist:
☐ Organize the discussion around each research question and (when appropriate) hypothesis individually. Support all the conclusions with one or more findings from the study.
☐ Discuss any factors that might have influenced the interpretation of the results.
☐ Present the results in the context of the study by describing the extent to which they address the study problem and purpose and contribute to the existing literature and framework described in Chapter 2.
☐ Describe the extent to which the results are consistent with existing research and theory and provide potential explanations for unexpected or divergent results.
Recommendations for Practice
Begin writing here…
Checklist:
☐ Discuss recommendations for how the findings of the study can be applied to practice and/or theory. Support all the recommendations with at least one finding from the study and frame them in the literature from Chapter 2.
☐ Do not overstate the applicability of the findings.
Recommendations for Future Research
Begin writing here…
Checklist:
☐ Based on the framework, findings, and implications, explain what future researchers might do to learn from and build upon this study. Justify these explanations.
☐ Discuss how future researchers can improve upon this study, given its limitations.
☐ Explain what the next logical step is in this line of research.
Conclusions
Begin writing here…
Checklist:
☐ Provide a strong, concise conclusion to include a summary of the study, the problem addressed, and the importance of the study.
☐ Present the “take-home message” of the entire study.
☐ Emphasize what the results of the study mean with respect to previous research and either theory (PhD studies) or practice (applied studies).
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