Answer 1

Counseling, defined as the suggestion of guidance given by an expert to someone for solving problem or some psychological guidance for mental stability. Learning and updating helps an individual for skills development and self-polishing. The basic way to refurbish skill are reading, writing, learning, and then implementing it. Apart from reading written context, people are more reliant on technology. Thus, technology has several other ways for continuous improvement i.e. (Skinner, 2012), conference, online courses, videos seminars, expert speaker’s sessions and so on,

1. Conferences: It is a formal meeting where the experts present their view on a common topic.
2. Online portals: Here the speaker present his context for any article in form of recorded videos or live sessions
3. Seminars: Usually a seminar is conduct with large group of people and one on one interaction held expressing one opinion for respective context.
4. Speakers Session: here one is the speaker who keeps his viewpoint and finding among the group and at the end takes a feedback session in respect of any confusion or query.

Answer 2

Concept	Key themes	Application with clients
Nature and nurture	Nature – Inherited from birth, family, or biological factorsNurture – Learned from observing the external world	Example In 20th century, the concept of twins who are separate from birth brought a halt on debate of nature and nurture concept. Clearly stating human nature, natural disposition and environmental surrounding.
Genetic inheritance	It is attaining by birth from parents and family blood (Erikson, 1998).	The eye colour, height, colour complexion, hair colour, gender etc., are few examples of genetic inheritance.
Lifespan development	This theory measures the entire human nature from life to death	Living being, starts initially from birth than physical, Psychological and Social development take place till death (Cooper & Klein, 2018).

Answer 3

Theory	Key themes	Application with clients
Behaviourism	New learning can be brought into behaviour through reinforcement and implication of thoughts.	Correct behavioural response is reflected by teacher and further absorbed by students.
Cognitivist	In order to improve the mental health, activate task are given. It is carried out to initiate spshyco – social balance.	The Teacher takes an initiative and provides learning environment, initiating discovery, and accommodation.
Constructivism	The existing knowledge is upgrade by involving in social activities.	Teacher encourages the group learning by giving group presentation, assignments, activities, tasks and so on.

(Nabavi, 2012)

Answer 4

Theory	Key concepts/principles	Practices and application with clients
Freud – Psychodynamics	It states that the feeling of fear and anger occurs from the childhood experiences. The subconscious occur due to experiences in childhood.	Sarah was a client of psychiatrist Nain, she shared her childhood experience of harassment left her shattered and make her feel anxiety even after marriage. (Etherington & Bridges, 2011).
Piaget – Cognitive Development	The rearrangement of mental process in respect of biological maturation and external experience (Piaget, Inhelder, & Weaver, 1972).	In a classroom teacher is supposed to focus on student learning rather than delivering lecture. This more beneficial ad reliable.
Erikson – Psychosocial Development	He believed that human life divides into eight stages from infant to adulthood, having separate psychological impact, it can be positive or negative (Erikson, 1998).	Hope, will, competency, purpose, fidelity, love, care and wisdom the basic desire of human life.
Maslow – Hierarchy of needs	Maslow’s theory states that, human is psychologically bound of its desires and prioritise it according to their time and earning (Maslow, 2019).	A normal man usually aims, first getting a job, then fulfilling his basic need, later the focus shift to maintain lifestyle, then securing life, attaining fame and reputation.
Bowl by – Attachment	Attachment states one’s emotional potential or closeness felt towards someone special.	A newborn child can only feel the sensation of his mom.
Skinner – Behaviourism	It states as learning anything new through reinforcement and punishments (Skinner, 2012).	Teachers reward the student with A grade if he performs good and vice versa.
Bandura – Social Learning Theory	Human tendency of learning is classified into two part, through Observation and Meditation (Nabavi, 2012).	Child learns to respond when someone calls him.A child living in abusive family learns to abuse, growing adult (Pratt, Cullen, & Sellers, 2009).
Rogers – Humanism	Roger believed that to grow every individual needs an open environment. Ready to except each other must be the major concern (Rogers & Freiberg, 1994).	Child commits mistake, parents must teach him flaws and realise the mistake rather than punishing him.

Answer 5

Key Points	Classical conditioning	Operant conditioning
Beliefs	(Ivan Pavlov)He believed that every individual has a response to things from within. Their body release stimuli in response, depending upon the condition of stimuli.	(B. F. Skinner)He believed that the response of human being depends upon the circumstances occurring. (Skinner, 2012).
Nature of Response	The response is reflective in nature.	The response can be voluntary or involuntary.
Stimuli Timing	Stimulus and response work simultaneously	The stimulus reacts after the response.
Response Time	After the stimulus	Before the stimulus
Implementation	Initial- UCS + UCRSTAGE 2- US +NO RESPONSESTAGE 3- CS + CR	It follows the process of reward and punishment.
Type of Behavior	Involuntary	Voluntary
Source of Behavior	By stimulus	By organism

(Sreule & Craig, 2018)

Answer 6

Learning is divided into two 2 major prospects that influence the behaviour of individual and define their thought process.

1. Observational behaviour

Meditation process:

Attention – Here the child learns from his surrounding, being observer, they analyze the outcome from thought. Usually the influential models for him is parents and TV contents. In general, a child observes the behavior from same gender.

Retention – After the child continuously observe the surrounding behavior, he starts implementing in his own life. It can be good or bad. For Example, if an elder sibling is punished for misbehavior than younger automatically connect the incident as punishment and vice versa (Higgins, 2007).

Reproduction- This is the ability of model to respond to the behavior. Every individual varies from each other, so it is essential to measure the caliber and mental strength of mode.

Response- After the analyzing process completely the child gives response under same incident.

Answer 7

Reinforcement is the process in which the observer acknowledges the way model learn and response to a situation. Focus is on state of mind and new learning than that of reason for behaviour (Etherington & Bridges, 2011).

Four approaches are:

1. Positive: If the model gives positive outcome, they are rewarded. It can be a smile, an appreciation, or feedback.
2. Negative: This part can be risky as it can create a positive or negative impact on model. The major objective is removal of adverse stimulus in respect of creating probability.
3. Punishment: This stage occurs when the model or respondent brings any harm. It is essential only when the respondent restricts to learn from mistake and warned multiple times.
4. Extinction: The repetitive behaviour of model comes under extinction. It can be positive or negative.

An example from Kim Etherington – Sarah’s story- Sarah was a girl who faced child abuse in her age, which terrorised her emotionally, mentally and physically. She consulted to psychiatrist Nina, her therapy and counseling brought a new direction to her live. (Etherington & Bridges, 2011).

Answer 8

As per the case of Ger, a youth addicted to gambling and ruined his life. He was prisoned for 6 months for the misconducts. This contrived his behavior and destroyed life. Therapists help such individual to cope up problem and helps to get back to life. Few theories were introduced for supporting the session (Nabavi, 2012). They are:

1. Cognitive Behavioural Theory:  This theory emphasis on understanding relatedness of cognition, behaviour, emotions, thoughts etc., A process is conducted to gather past information of patient’s mental thought before proceeding treatment.
2. Behavioural Therapies: It is more of emphasised on concept of classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
3. Psychodynamic therapy: The pathological gamblers are more of focused on analysing the reason for ongoing gambling and resolving the reason.

Answer 9

Influence	Analysis of potential impacts
childhood events	The following emotions are enclosed under negative enforcement, which anyways creates a negative impact on child. Negative thoughts, cause child to be aggressive.
Parenting styles	Gestures are recorded under observational behaviour. The way parents raise a child impact his learning skill and school provide an external environment, societal ethics to mould according to parenting and school environment.
Poverty	It leads negative impact, facing malnutrition, relation problem, and mental sickness. (Cooper & Klein, 2018).
Peers pressure	It can be negative or positivePositive leads to listening music, loving sports, studious.Negative peer pressure can cause to smoking, drug addiction.

Reference

 

Sreule, M. J., & Craig, L. E. (2018). Social Learning Theories—An Important Design Consideration for Geoscience Fieldwork. Journal of Goscience Education, 64(2), 101-107.

Cooper, D. T., & Klein, J. L. (2018). Examining college students’ differential deviance:. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2018.1443868

Higgins, G. E. (2007). Digital Piracy, Self-Control Theory, and Rational Choice: An Examination of the Role of Value. International Journal of Cyber Criminology , 23.

Pratt, T. C., Cullen, F. T., & Sellers, C. S. (2009). The Empirical Status of Social Learning Theory: A Meta‐Analysis. Justice Quarterly, 765-802.

Nabavi, R. T. (2012). Bandura’s Social Learning Theory & Social Cognitive Learning Theory. ResearchGate.

Etherington, K., & Bridges, N. (2011). Narative Case Study Research: On ending and six session review. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research, 11-22.

Skinner, B. F. (2012). Science and Human Behaviour. New York: The Free Press.

Rogers, C. R., & Freiberg, H. J. (1994). Freedomm to Learn. Pearson.

Erikson, E. H. (1998). The Lifecycle Completed. W.W.Norton Company.

Maslow, A. H. (2019). A Theory of Human Motivation. New York: General Press.

Piaget, J., Inhelder, B., & Weaver, H. (1972). The Pshychology of the Child. New York: BasicBook.