QUESTION
Scientific article annotation and re-write marking guides
Annotation
We expect students to tell us not only what is wrong, but also ways to improve precision, clarity and brevity.
| Title
It should tell the reader about the results of the work. Abstract It should explain what was done and why (hypothesis), how it was done, what was the main result (quantified) and what was the main conclusion.
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1 |
| Introduction
It should be a series of logical statements leading to the hypothesis.
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3 |
| Materials and methods
Ideally these should start with the experimental design or how the authors went about testing the hypothesis.
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2 |
| Results
The most important results should be described first and should be quantified in the text before sending the reader to a table or figure.
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2 |
| Discussion
The most important result should be discussed first in relation to the hypothesis (was it supported or not?). Then the results should be discussed in relation to the work of others and lastly in relation to the bigger picture (practical implications, what this means for the world, etc). |
2 |
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Total |
10 |
Article re-write
We expect students to re-write the article and produce a greatly improved version.
| Title
It should tell the reader about the results of the work.
|
1 |
| Abstract
It should explain what was done and why (hypothesis), how it was done, what were the main results (quantified) and what was the main conclusion from those results.
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3 |
| Introduction
It should be a series of logical arguments, supported by scientific evidence (references) leading to the hypothesis.
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5 |
| Materials and methods
Ideally these should start with the experimental design or how they went about testing the hypothesis.
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2 |
| Results
The most important results should be described first and should be quantified in the text before sending the reader to a table or figure. We expect students to produce tables and figures of a very high standard. Results in tables should be arranged in some orderly manner, possibly from highest to lowest in preference to alphabetical. Standard errors should be given, and significant results should be indicated by different superscripts. We expect students to follow the 30-300 rule. Captions should adequately describe the content of the table or figure and be self supporting.
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5 |
| Discussion
Results should be discussed first in relation to the hypothesis and clearly identify if this was supported or not. The results can then be discussed in relation to the work of others and lastly in relation to the bigger picture.
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5 |
| References
All those quoted in the text should also be quoted in a list of references at the end. References should be in a consistent style.
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2 |
| Other
Good overall presentation and absence of grammatical errors will be rewarded. Marks will be lost if students use abbreviations, split infinitives, noun clusters, verbs used in the place of nouns, apostrophes placed at random in the text and inappropriate expressions like “this study found”, “our experiment tested the hypothesis”, etc..
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2 |
| Total | 25 |
SOLUTION
The Effects of Human Approaches on Wallabies
Summary
Wallabies are affected by the approach of humans in a variety of ways. In order to study and quantify these effects, we carried out a study using different methods on four species of macropodid and noted the results. Macropodids are affected to a much larger extent by humans approaching them or coming close to them via a vehicle than on foot.
Introduction
Humans are viewed by animals as predators. Being surrounded or approached by animals has a significant impact on their activities and elicits responses that range from affecting foraging efficiency to abandoning the young (MacArthur et al, 1982; Goodrich et al, 1994, de la Torre et al 2000; Philips et al 2000; Creel et al, 2002; Grossberg et al, 2003). The extent of the behavioral impact on animals depends on two factors – the mode of approach and the distance of approach. The amount of time spent on different behaviors by animals is determined by assessing costs, benefits and risks of those actions (Lima et al, 1990).
We investigated the responses to human approach by macropodid species living in a semi-protected environment – in this case, a sanctuary. The aims of this study were three-fold:
- To determine whether the time taken by the animals to perform different activities changed as a result of human approach.
- To identify the factors that affect the nature and magnitude of the animals’ responses.
- To determine whether the animals migrated temporarily to areas containing a lesser amount of food in response to human presence.
Methods and Techniques
The study was conducted at the 150-ha Australian Native Flora and Fauna Sanctuary between November 2002 and April 2003. The sanctuary, which also contains some locally extinct animals, is closed to the general public save for school groups and special interest groups. Four macropodid species were present in the sanctuary, all of which were studied:
- Eastern Gray Kangaroo Macropus giganteus
- Red-necked Wallaby Macropus rufogriseus
- Swamp Wallaby Wallabia bicolor
- Bridled Nailtail Wallaby Onychogalea faenata
The actual observations began every second day before sunlight and lasted an hour. The researcher travelled, either in a vehicle or on foot, at the speed of one kilometer per hour. Four distinct approaches were used to observe macropodid behavior:
- No approach: The researcher, apparently unseen by the animal, hid at a distance of 300 meters
- On-track approach: The researcher walked towards the animal along the track
- Off-track approach: The researcher approached the animal in a direction parallel to the track
- In car approach: The researcher approached the animal in a vehicle
Animal activity recorded during this study included maintenance activities such as feeding, resting, grooming and interactions with other animals; and also moving, looking up etc. The flight distances of animals when approached by humans and their movements between different habitats were also recorded. Tours were organized on every second day for a month. Data was collected every day, starting from two weeks prior to the commencement of the first tour to two weeks after the last tour.
Results
All the four macropodid species fled farther when the researcher had approached to a closer distance in a vehicle than on foot (Fig. 1). The flight distances for off-track and on-track approaches were close to each other for all the species.
Fig. 1 – Flight distances for the four species for different modes of approach
Discussion
A general decrease in maintenance activities was the net result of human approach and proximity. In contrast with other mammals, macropodids did not differentiate significantly between the types of the approaches, such as on- or off-track approaches, approaches on foot or in a vehicle, and the approach distance.
Macropodid species can become habituated to human presence (Green et al, 2001). With an increase in the number of tours, it is indeed possible that they may become used to human presence and may respond with changes of a lesser magnitude.
The responses to a vast number of species have been in direct proportion to the approach distance. As far as an approach on vehicles is concerned, macropodids behaved like most other mammals, reacting less to a vehicle than to a pedestrian. This is surprising, because culling is normally performed by the sanctuary on vehicles. There may be many explanations for this, including:
- Like moose, they may have concluded that human constitute a danger while vehicles do not
- Pedestrians, unlike vehicles, bear a close resemblance to predators and mammals.
- Macropodids are less susceptible to being surprised by vehicles since they (the vehicles) are noticeable from greater distances than are pedestrians.
Any displacement of habitat as a result of tours and human approach was only temporary. Passive tours that do not force the animal away from their natural habitat, may thus be assumed to have no significant effect on the animals’ survival or reproduction. However, it is possible that mammals choose to remain in an area where their survival or reproduction is threatened or reduced due to regular tours simply due to a lack of alternative living habitats (Gill et al, 2001; Frid et al, 2002). This reasoning could be particularly applicable to macropodids in the sanctuary in question because of its small size of 150 ha, around half of which consists of a comparatively limited food supply.
Implications
The techniques that can be used to reduce the negative effects of tourism and tourist activities vary greatly from species to species. The impact of different types of approaches needs to be investigated in order to determine which technique works best for which species.
The best techniques that minimize the effect of tourism on wildlife may vary as conditions change or as the species themselves become familiar with human presence. During the course of this particular study, the area suffered from serious to severe rainfall deficiency, which may have had an influence on the wallabies’ responses. Behavioral change due to human approach may also change based on times of the day or the seasons (Jeppeson 1987; Louis et al. 2000; Papouchis et al. 2001; Wahungu et al. 2001). Hence, animal behavior should continue to be monitored over a prolonged period of time to ensure that the selected techniques continue to have an effect.
The following measures may be adopted to minimize the negative effects of tours on the macropodids’ lifestyle:
- Tours should only be conducted on vehicles
- Some tours may be conducted on foot if the animal movement and displacement caused by tours is not long-lasting. However, tours may need to be conducted only on vehicles if the displacement is found to be considerable or long-lasting.
- Continued observations wildlife responses to the various modes and distances of approach by humans, leading to suitable adjustments in tour parameters such as schedule, depth, frequency etc. whenever appropriate.
However, it must be cautioned that the impact of human proximity and approach to animals should be treated with caution. Such approaches may little or no effect on animal survival and reproduction. Behavioral responses may not be reliable indictors of fitness costs of human approaches (Gill et al, 2001). It is essential to minimize the impact of tourism for the animals’ general welfare and also until it is established whether temporary behavioral changes in macropodids are affecting their population.
References:
Creel, S., Fox, J. E., hardy, A., Sands, J., Garrott, B. and Peterson, R. O., 2002. Snowmobile activity and glucocorticoid stress responses in wolves and elk. Cons. Biol. 16: 809-14.
De la Torre, S., Snowdon, C.T. and Bejarano, M., 2000. Effects of huan activities on wild pygmy marmosets in Ecuadorian Amazonia. Biol. Cons. 94: 153-63.
Frid, A. and Dill, L. M. 2002. Human-caused disturbance stimuli as a form of predation risk. Cons. Ecol. 6: 11.
Goodrich, J.M. and Berger, J., 1994. Winter recreation and hibernating black bears Ursus americanus. Biol. Cans. 67: 105-10.
Green, R. J. and Higginbottom. K, 2001. The Negative Effects of Wildlife Tourism on Wildlife. Wildlife Tourism Research Report Series No. 5. CRC for Sustainable Tourisn, Queensland, Australia.
Gill,. J. A., Norris. K and Sutherland. W. J., 2001. Why behavioral responses may not reflect the population consequences of human disturbance. Biol. Cons. 67: 105-10.
Grossberg, R., Treves, A, and Naughton-Treves, L., 2003. The incidental ecotourist: measuring visitor impacts on endangered howler monkeys at a Beliizean archaeological site. Environ. Cons. 30: 40-51.
Jeppeson. J. L., 1987b. The disturbing effects of orienteering and hunting on Rose Deer (Cupreolus capreolus). Danish Rev. Game Biol. 13: 3-24.
Lima, S. L. and Dill. L. M., 1990. Behavioral decisions made under the risk of predation: a review and prospectus. Can. J. Zool. 63: 619-40.
Louis, S. and Berre. M. L. 2000. Adjustement des distances de fuite a l’homme chez Marmota marmola, Can, J. Zool. 78: 556-63.
MacArthur, R.A., Geist, V. and Johnston, R.H., 1982. Cardiac and behavioural responses of mountain sheep to human disturbance. J. Wildl. Man. 46: 35—58.
Papouchis, C. M., Singer, F. J. and Sloan, W, B., 2001. Responses of desert bighorn sheep to increased human recreation. J. Wildl. Man. 65: 573-82.
Phillips, G. E. and Alldredge, A. W., 2000. Reproductive success of elk following disturbance by humans during calving season. J. Wildl. Man. 64: 521-30.
Wahungu, G. M., CAtterall, C. P. and Olsen, M. F., 2001. Predator avoidance, feeding and habitat use in the red-necked pademelon, Thylogale thetis, at rainforest edges. Aust. J. Zool. 49: 45-58.
KC41
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