Discuss three (3) recruitment methods, and evaluate the reliability (reliability) and validity of the chosen methods.
The first recruitment method to discuss is the use of interviews. Job analysts conduct interviews with incumbents to collect information entailing their tasks, and includes structured and unstructured interviews, depending on the culture of the organization (Hobfoll, 2011). Structured interviews follow a systematic approach, where employees get interviewed accurately and consistently via a preset format. Structured interviews have a high level of validity and reliability because of their consistency, where all interviewees get asked the same questions in the same order. Also, interviewers record, compare and evaluate answers provided against standardized criteria, and the process of the interview remains the same even if the interviewer gets changed. The unstructured interviews unravel without a preset culture. The interview process gets carried out via a conversation without any predefined questions. The interviewer makes the purpose and focus of the interview clear to the employees. Unstructured interviews are reliable and valid because the interviewees may receive different questions, or the same questions might be asked in a different order. Also, interviewers don’t always use standardized criteria for recording, comparing, and evaluating the answers. Its reliability and validity are based on the fact that there is less bias in the method because the similarity of the answers provided is less. After all, the questions asked are different. The reliability of the interview method is based on the fact that it increases the chances of hiring an applicant who possesses the best qualifications, through evaluating the values of the applicant, such as personal confidence , ethics and experience. The interviews method is also valid because it determines the essential abilities and consists of face to face validity through face to face evaluation of the interviewee by the interviewer.
Interviews however have some drawbacks, where the HR professionals and job analysts may exaggerate or omit vital details, which can be overcome by interviewing more than one employee in the same position, which leads to more reliable results and data that the job analysts and human resource professionals can operate with.
Employee test method
Employment tests include cognitive ability tests, aptitude tests, personality tests, performance tests, and interest tests. When conducting these tests, the applicants are asked to perform within a simulated work environment (Uggerslev, Fassina, & Kraichy, 2012). The trained assessors evaluate the applicant’s performance and the method is mostly used in the selection of managers. The techniques used in the test method include basket training and leadership group discussions. The employment test method is very reliable because the result it produces is consistent over time. The method is valid for it measures the aspects that are related to job requirements directly and that it avoids bias by using very strict rules that provide results that help in determining suitability. The background investigation method used is reliable because it provides employers with the crucial information that aids them in wise hiring decision making bout a particular applicant.
Background method
The background method is used to carry out investigations and checks, to verify factual information provided by the applicants, and uncover any damaging information.
The sources of information for background checks include the former employers, the current supervisors, the commercial credit rating companies, and written references. Its validity is through the referencing of the providers’ concerns, due to fear of legal reprisal for defamation, need to apprehend the applicant’s chances, helping in getting rid of the incompetent employees. Its reliability and validity get increased through inclusion on the application form for the applicants to sign explicitly to authorize a background check. Telephone references get used if possible, the employers get persistent to obtain information and ask open-ended questions to elicit more information from the provided references (Zijlstra, Cropley, & Rydstedt,2014). Also, the references provided by the applicant get used by the employers as sources for other references. Background checks also get done through the application of all the state laws, obtaining only the useful information, using only the information related to the applied job, and keeping the applicant’s information confidential. The employers also review the impact of the federal equal employment laws and also checks involvement in lawsuits when recruiting executive candidates.
Organizational culture is a common feature of organizational change that is both planned and emergent. Discuss organizational change and organizational culture according to these two perspectives.
Organizational culture is based on time spans, and interests based on broad patterns, organizational specific transformations, and the types of changes experienced such as technological, mergers, or downsizing. The theoretical perspective of organizational change is based on agents of change and the driving forces of the environment. Change displays interests in time, where different time spans can be focused on. The planned organizational change is based on the assumption that every member of an organization agrees to work towards a certain direction without any disagreement. Planned organizational change is the process through which the managers prepare the entire organization or a significant part of it about its new goals and direction (Arnold & Randall, 2020).The direction includes the internal structures of the organization, the organizational culture, the rewards, metrics, processes, or any other similar metrics.
Planned change entails the planning models of change, and includes Lewin’s change model which provides a general framework of planned change which entails three basic steps. The first step is unfreezing, which are the steps that keep things in the organization as they are, and happens through psychological disconfirmation. The second step is moving, also called shifting the organization’s behavior, and entails an intervention. The third step is refreezing, which is the stabilization of an organization in a new equilibrium state (Bakker, & Demerouti, 2007). According to Lewin, the steps entail a force field analysis, where change-related problems get characterized by an imbalance between the driving forces such as new personnel and new technology and restraining forces like fear of failure and the organizational inertia. To thrive, the organization is required to unfreeze the driving and the restraining forces and introduce an imbalance such as through increasing the drivers and reducing the restaurants. Finally, the organization should refreeze the forces which is the last step, which brings the organization back to quasi-equilibrium.
Lewis’s model is based on Group dynamics School and OD, where the employees get involved in small group works in an organization. These groups get governed by norms, roles, and values (Sitzmann, & Weinhardt, 2018). The first step is a preparatory step and a planning stage where employees get included to reduce friction and resistance. Unfreezing entails destabilizing the status quo of the norms and values of a group, and include activities like inspirational talks and education from prominent personalities.
Unfreezing entails convincing the management of the necessity for change. The second step entails moving the organization to a new state and preventing of from regressing into the earlier behaviors and making the organisational members accept the new state, and the last step is the stabilisation of the new state and preventing it from going back to the past behavior. Planned change is through a central theme of knowledge, commitment, and learning, which helps the managers to reduce resistance to change and create a new need or changes among the staff members. It is a way of managing change by the reduction o forces that prevent change rather than pushing for change, and change is acquired in the organization via undermining the stabilizing forces.
Emergent organizational change is based on the assumption that change is continuous, open-ended, and not a predictable process, where the organization can be aligned and realigned to its changing environment (Todnem,2005)
Energent change brings about meaningful change and intense shifts of culture in the entire organization. It includes a new understanding and cooperation, where the organization gets strengthened as a unified team. Emergent change involves the whole organization, where people meet and work together in one place and at the same time.
Planned change is deliberate, involves conscious reasoning and actions, while emergent change unfolds in a spontaneous and unplanned way. Planned change is controllable, has a clear beginning, middle, and end, and is driven by the management. The emergent change is a continual process of experimentation and adaptation, a multilevel and cross-organizational change, driven by interaction. The planned change also promises success and draws a line under the past, it is slow, time-consuming, and mostly resistant. In emergent change, the manager’s role entails keeping culture to enable change occurs, inefficient, and its effects are mostly unpredictable.
Discuss job analysis and competence modeling. Discuss how these methods are used in organizations.
Competence modeling is the identification, definition, and measurement of the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics of an individual in the workplace. Motives, personalities, interests, beliefs, and values get considered as well, which can all be analyzed to differentiate an individual’s performance (Bartram, 2005). Various approaches can be used to perform competency modelling, and mostly includes an individual’s job level and the level of an organization. On an individual job level basis, an individual’s characteristics get identified, which are essential to be successful in a certain job. The level of the organization takes into account the objectives of an organization, its strategy, and vision, and attempts to come up with a set of competencies
Applied in the entire organization, the organizational departments, and the job family within the organization.
Job analysis involves the collection of data on the observable job behaviors and delineating the knowledge, abilities, and skills, and other attributes needed to carry out a job. Job analysis uses two separate approaches, which include work-oriented job analysis and task-oriented job analysis. Worker oriented job analysis is also called job specification and deals with the necessary attributes for the successful completion of a task. Task-oriented job analysis is also called work-oriented, and this mostly deals with what gets done in the job such as the relevant behaviors of the job, the way the job is being conducted such as the use of information, machinery, tools, and the ways of interaction (Borman& Motowidlo,1997). The approach is mostly termed as a job description and is based on the essential behaviors for an individual to complete a job successfully.
In organizations today, job analysis is used in describing the process of information collection on tasks, knowledge, skills, abilities, and attributes needed for a person to successfully complete an allocated task. Many organizations today use the formal approach of job analysis, where the information gathered is used for various administrative and developmental functions of the organization. These functions include job selection, where the organization selects the best person for the job after knowing what the job involves. Other functions include performance management and remuneration, where the managers use the analysis to know what is expected of a certain individual before they can accurately evaluate and reward their performance.It is also used in training and development, which involves knowing what the job entails and training the needs analysis before selecting the person to go to a leadership development program.
Job analysis provides the foundation of many of the applications of human resources, such as personnel recruiting and selection, performance management, training, and compensation. Competency modeling consists of two unique meanings in an organization, which include the broad personal attributes of an individual such as product knowledge and results orientation, and applies in many job roles across any organization. The Competency models of an organization get more focused on organizational goals and attributes, and differentiates superior from average workers, and provide value or a competitive advantage in the business organization (Schaufeli,& Taris, 2014). Competency models define how performance success should look like within an organization, and are applied in the management of talents, recruitment practices, training, and assessment of performance. Through competency models, a concrete direction for workforce performance get set which aligns with the goals and strategies of n organization, and also the human resource managers get a concrete understanding of the abilities and skills of all the employees. The human resource managers can also train more accurately using this model, through the identification of the learning and development needs of the staff. It also allows an employee to take ownership of their own skills and behaviors required for their roles, and also empowers the organizations to keep track of the skills of their employees to develop the strategies and plans to work towards the future skills needed. The model also gets used by the managers in conducting performance appraisal, through the provision of a framework needed to assess the employees properly during the review of performance, where both the employer and the employee have a clearly defined list of skills and behaviors to base their work.
What is meant by “Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB)” / extra-role behavior? What behaviors and attitudes characterize extra-role behavior? Why is extra-role behavior important for the organization? What organizational factors promote extra-role behavior
Organizational citizenship behavior according to organizational psychology is defined as the person’s voluntary commitment to an organization and is part of his part of the contractual tasks that the person carries out in that organization. Organizational behavior in all organizations is kept concerning the overall performance of the organization. Therefore, the behaviors of all employees in the organization play a vital role in influencing the performance of an organization. Extra role behavior refers to the kind of behavior that brings about benefit in an organization and also t it goes beyond the existing differences occurring between OCB AND ERB. Extra role behavior has got various behaviors and attitudes that characterize it. These behaviors and attitudes include civic virtue. This refers to the ability of an individual to poses traits that are important in the success of the community in which an organization is located ( Barrick, Mount, & Li, 2013). In general, it is the dedication of the citizen to the wellbeing of their communities. Consciousness is also another behavior. Consciousness refers to the kind of behaviors that help the organization and also perform beyond what is expected by the roles of that organization. Sportsmanship is also another attitude in extra-role behavior. This is defined as insisting on the positive aspects of the organization and at the same time, an individual can withstand the less ideal situations facing the organization. Courtesy as an attitude is the proactive behaviors and gestures in an organization that is directed towards preventing problems that are related to work performance. The other attitude that describes extra-role behavior is altruism which is behavior that is specifically aimed at helping other people in an organization in cases of issues that are related to the organization.
The Extra-role Behavior has a practical significance in an organization, where it can enhance the effectiveness and operational efficiency through the transformation of the resources of the organization, reforming the resources, and adaptability. Extra role behavior is divided into organizational-oriented extra-role behavior which focuses on the organization. Through it, the employees adhere to the informal rules that aim at the maintenance of work orders. The second category is an individual-oriented extra-role behavior that directly benefits the individual and indirectly benefits the organization. Through the extra-role behaviors, the co-workers can help each other in job-related problems where they share ideas and skills to tackle a disturbing episode through the behaviors that they possess. Extra role behaviors also enable the workers to accept orders without fuss, which leads to operational efficiency and effectiveness, The workers can also tolerate temporary impositions without complaints and helps them maintain cleanliness and physical hygiene at work. Extra role behaviors lead to the promotion of a tolerable work climate and minimize distractions. Extra role behaviors lead to a competitive advantage of organizations, where the employees use their own initiative and become more proactive to participate in the organization’s pressure to innovate and face new globalization challenges and search for quality which leads to organizational success. Extra role behaviors get promoted by job attitudes, which include the organizational commitment used as the main construct in the determination of discretionary behaviors. Perceived organizational support has a positive relationship with extra-role behaviors, hence organizational characteristics and an individual’s quality are the crucial basis of extra-role behaviors. Affective and normative commitment also leads to extra-role behaviors, because these behaviors show a positive relationship with altruism and compliance behaviors. The levels of satisfaction of an employee in any organization fluences his or her motivation, which in return leads to the activation of positive and autonomous work behaviors. The condition is significant in promoting employee motivation at work, lead t improved wellbeing and satisfaction. Through motivation, an employee gets an energizing force that drives their behavior and determines itgs direction, intensity, and duration. The motivation may be autonomous or controlled and may orient and direct actions towards outcomes. Intrinsic motivation is a prototype of self-determination and is brought about by pure interest and acting pleasure, and therefore, it is related to the highest form of motivation autonomy (Judge,Heller & Mount, 2002). An organization that satisfies its employees increases their intrinsic motivation and the autonomous motivation forms and leads t outcomes like effective performance, extra-role behaviors, satisfaction, and wellbeing.
References
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